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• Possible improvements of the water law concepts

  38-54

  János Ede Szilágyi

  Views:

  146

  The present article concentrates on the so-called water law concepts. As regards water law concepts, the article especially deals with the challenges of the Hungarian water management. The article has five main chapters. In the first chapter, the author focuses on the basis of the water law concepts, namely on natural, social and engineering sciences, furthermore, the author also determines the legal instruments which are able to provide proper links among the different water law concepts. The further four chapters analyse the water law concepts one by one; i.e. (a) ruling over waters, (b) water as an environmental component, (c) water as the subject of commercial deals (good or service), (d) water as cause of damage a.k.a. defence against water.

• The Legal Status of the Inventor in the First Hungarian Patent Act

  19-33

  László Papp

  Views:

  97

  The first Hungarian Act on Patents was adopted in 1895. The study examines the regulation of the inventor’s legal status in this act and the problems the legislature had to solve. In the first part of the study the inventor’s rights are described regarding the inventor’s personal and valuable rights and interests. By the beginning of the 20th century license became the most important valuable right and interest, although its regulation could not be found in any act. In fact, a decision of the Patent Court in 1928 declared the regulation of leasehold valid, which raised greater and greater difficulties in legal application from the second half of the 20th century. The second part of the study examines the inventor’s obligation of payment and functioning. The latter is one of the special features of the intellectual property system which is regulated by the Industrial Property Union.

• The Basic Regulatory Issues of Agricultural Application of Precision Genome Editing and the Precautionary Principle

  42-64

  László Fodor

  Views:

  269

  The rapidly developing gene manipulation techniques (more recently „gene editing”) have long been controversial, which is reflected in the evolution of legal regulation in Europe. Hungaryʼs Fundamental Law (Art. XX.) clearly states that Hungarian agriculture desires to remain free from genetically modified organisms. According to the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA resolution, 2017), the results of the new techniques (without transgenic implantation) are not regarded as GMOs (by the proper application of the genetic engineering law), these new techniques are not governed by the provisions of the Fundamental Law. Recently, a lawsuit was filed before the Court of Justice of the European Union in which the main question was whether GMOs should be considered the result of new techniques (if not, they do not need to be licensed). In the light of a detailed analysis of the precautionary principle, the study examines the question of whether genetic engineering or its results cover the scope of the legislation. According to the author, this question (as long as the revision of the regulation is not on the agenda) is not for the genetic technologists and plant breeders, but for the lawyers to decide. The conclusion of the study is that genetic engineering, respectively its results are subject to the regulation.

• Legal aspects of NFTs

  60-77

  Botond Breszkovics

  Views:

  170

  The focus of the study is on NFTs. Accordingly, the study presents, on the one hand, the process and reason for the emergence of NFTs as a new crypto art category. Subsequently, within the framework of the study, the operation of NFT marketplaces and the different sales methods of NFTs are examined. Finally, in the light of the applicable national copyright law, an apparent conflict between the copyright holder and the owner of a given NFT will be resolved following the trading of the NFT on the secondary market.

• The Importance of the Offender's Personality in the Infliction Process, Particularly as Regards the Criminal Records

  91-108

  Ágnes Pápai-Tarr

  Views:

  251

  During the infliction process, the judiciary needs to take into account the accused person’s personal circumstances, a process which also consists of the thorough exploration of the criminal records of the accused. It has to be considered whether the accused has committed any crime, and has been sentenced before, and if they have been, how many times, when, for what crime, and, last but not least, what the sentence was. These factors may greatly influence the inflicted punishment as a clean record is usually considered by the judiciary as a mitigating circumstance, while recidivists, offenders who pose an increased risk to society, are more seriously penalised. The penal literature of the last few decades lacks thorough studies on the previous criminal records of offenders. In my study paper and research, I attempt to make up for this shortage by examining the criminal records of the offender as a criterion of the infliction process. My aim is to present the actual judicial practise beyond the effective legislative environment and call attention to certain anomalies.

• The Legal Status of Women in the Balkans from the 19th Century to the Present

  101-123

  László Heka

  Views:

  251

  One of the most important pieces of legislation in Serbian history was the Serbian Civil Code (SCC) of 1844, which remained in force for more than 100 years. It dates back to the time when the country was still part of the Ottoman Empire and survived the state law regimes of the Principality of Serbia, the Kingdom of Serbia, the Kingdom of Serbs-Croats and Slovenians and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia before being liquidated by socialist Yugoslavia in 1945. From the moment it was created, there had been serious criticism, such as that it was modelled on the Austrian civil code and thus did not correspond to Serbian legal-social relations, and so there was no indication that it would be a durable piece of legislation. In its 100-year history, most of the criticism concerned the discriminatory provisions on women. Mostly, the legal situation of married women was detrimental, as they had no capacity to act, and were represented by their husbands. Their proclaimed equality took place in 1946, but they actually received the same legal status as men in the late 20th century.

• Personal data protection in the public sector in frame of the GDPR

  39-54

  Szilvia Váradi

  Views:

  430

  The European Union has finished the reform of the European data protection rules, and the main result is the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which entered into force after a two-year period on 25 May 2018. The GDPR draws special attention to the protection of personal data not only in the private-, but also in the public sector. It introduces several significant changes and restrictions, but after almost a year of being in force, there is still some uncertainty as to how we can apply its provisions, especially for public authorities and bodies. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to explore the relevant data protection provisions of GDPR regarding the public sector and to clarify any misunderstandings in this field.

• Protection of Marriage and Family in Central Europe

  7-31

  Tímea Barzó

  Views:

  225

  It is no exaggeration to say that family plays a prominent role in our daily lives. This study therefore examines the constitutional and family law foundations of family protection in seven Central European countries. The study describes, among other things, the nature of family law legislation, the conceptual approach to family and marriage, the legal protection and solution of extramarital partnerships, such as de facto partnerships and registered partnerships, and the status of children in the countries studied.

• The Criminalisation of Active Bribery of Public Officials: A New KOL Research in Hungary

  9-29

  Miklós Hollán

  Tímea Venczel

  Views:

  239

  The aim of the three-year project “Novelties of Criminal Law in Legal Consciousness” was to measure the knowledge and attitudes of lay people concerning criminal law including regulatory novelties with a questionnaire-based survey. In this paper, the authors analyse the responses to questions related to active bribery of public officials. The research has verified our hypothesis that the average person has a fragmented knowledge even about this sector of criminal law. However, this is partly due to the fact that the respondents – compared to the differentiation of the legal regulation – usually have schematic knowledge on the topic. The answers were strongly influenced by attitudes towards this type of criminality. It was not substantiated, however, that this knowledge is substantially affected by socio-economic factors, by media consumption or by encountering criminality. Our hypothesis regarding the novelty of regulation has been only partially proven: there are more than three times more people whose answers reflect the old regulation than the new one. However, this was not necessarily due to actual knowledge of the older regulation, but rather to the fact that it was more in line with respondents insensitivity to legal distinctions.

• Collision of Judicial Opinions in the Practice of the Curia

  István Erdős

  Views:

  30

  This article examines the 2/2022 PJE Unity Decision of the Curia from the perspective of divergent theoretical and dogmatical views expressed in minority opinions. The case study compares the dissenting opinions and the majority opinion of the judges and aims at demonstrating the fact that theoretical disagreement between judges has a huge impact on legal practice and on the issue of how judges decide cases. The hypothesis of the article is that – in hard legal cases – the reason for the differing opinions is the different theoretical convictions of judges. It seems evident that two legal practitioners, who have different views on cardinal issues of law, such as the concept or the purpose of law, interpret legal norms differently. Using the method of qualitative case analysis, the article analyses the arguments appearing in the justification of the decision.

• Judicial Review in Emergency Situations: the Relevant Case Law of the European Court of Human Rights

  200-218

  Gábor Mészáros

  Views:

  127

  Emergencies are mostly sudden, and in most cases states need special measures to deal with them. For this reason liberal democracies have standing constitutional or special legal powers to derogate human rights for the sake of order. Those democracies that do not have such powers, use impromptu ones. It is possible for authoritarian governments to abuse emergency powers in order to stay in power, to derogate human rights and to silence the opposition. Therefore it is essential for a liberal democracy to have strict limits for the duration, circumstance and scope of emergency powers. There are human rights regimes (for example: the European Convention on Human Rights) which have to respect the member states’ duty and responsibility in such cases. This article tries to examine this special case law of the European Court of Human Rights. The question is whether a European Human Rights regime is capable of becoming the guardian of human rights in cases of national emergencies, or the sovereignty of states also means that there is very narrow margin to prove legality above security?

• New Directions in Vocational and Adult Education, Especially with Regard to Current Issues in the Storage Sector

  104-119

  Nóra Jakab

  Laura Berényi

  Zsófia Ráczi

  Views:

  167

  The challenges of the Fourth Industrial Revolution are having an impact in many areas of life. The vocational and adult education system is no exception. In line with the changes, system-level transformations and developments are taking place in Hungary in this field, creating the basis for ensuring quality professional training. We consider the issues related to the warehousing sector to be of special relevance, as well as the examination of the possibilities that, in accordance with the new changes, offer solutions to the high-risk activities as well.

• Az európai nyomozási határozat, mint a büntetőeljárás hatékonyságát fokozó eszköz

  26-49

  Andrea Jánosi

  Views:

  289

  A büntetőügyekben folytatott igazságügyi együttműködés egyik célkitűzése egy olyan eljárási rendszer kidolgozása, amely elősegíti a tagállami büntetőeljárások hatékonyságát, így lehetőséget teremt arra, hogy az egyik tagállamban beszerzett bizonyítási eszköz egy másik tagállamban folytatott büntetőeljárás keretében is könnyedén felhasználható legyen. Az Amszterdami Szerződés hatályba lépésétől kezdődően több olyan dokumentum is született, amelyik egy ilyen rendszer megteremtésének szükségességére hívta fel a figyelmet. Az Európai Bizottság (a továbbiakban: Bizottság) 2009-ben kiadott, a büntetőügyekben felvett bizonyítékoknak a tagállamok által másik tagállamtól történő megszerzéséről és elfogadhatóságuk biztosításáról szóló Zöld könyvében számba vette azokat a hatályos jogintézményeket, amelyek „mechanizmusokat biztosítanak a tagállamok számára ahhoz, hogy a határokon átnyúló helyzetekben elfogadható büntetőügyi bizonyítékokat gyűjtsenek,” s megállapította, hogy a bizonyításfelvételt érintő uniós joganyag alapvetően két csoportra osztható. Vannak egyrészt olyan jogintézmények, amelyek kölcsönös jogsegélyre (pl.: kölcsönös bűnügyi jogsegélyről szóló európai egyezmény), másrészt pedig olyanok, amelyek a kölcsönös elismerés elvére épülnek (pl.: európai bizonyításfelvételi parancs). Valójában egyik sem teremti meg azt a mechanizmust, amellyel biztosított lenne a hatékony bizonyításfelvétel egy másik tagállamban, vagy a megszerzett bizonyítási eszközök tényleges felhasználhatósága/elfogadhatósága. E hiányosság kiküszöbölését hivatott szolgálni a 2014. április 3-án elfogadott európai nyomozási határozatról szóló irányelv. Célkitűzése – a büntetőeljárások hatékonyságának a fokozása érdekében – a bizonyításfelvétel és a bizonyítékátadás egységes, a kölcsönös elismerés elvén alapuló rendszerének megteremtése, amely a bizonyítékok minden fajtájára kiterjed, pontos végrehajtási határidőket jelöl meg, és szűk körre korlátozza a megtagadás lehetséges indokait. Az európai nyomozási határozat az alábbi jogintézmények felváltását szolgálja: a kölcsönös jogsegélyen alapuló eszközök közül a Kölcsönös bűnügyi jogsegélyről szóló európai egyezményt és kiegészítő jegyzőkönyveit; a Schengeni Végrehajtási Egyezményt, az Európai Unió tagállamai közötti kölcsönös bűnügyi jogsegélyről szóló egyezményt és kiegészítő jegyzőkönyvét, és bi-, és multilaterális megállapodásokat. A kölcsönös elismerés elvén alapuló eszközök közül az európai bizonyításfelvételi parancsról szóló kerethatározatot, valamint a vagyonnal vagy bizonyítékkal kapcsolatos biztosítási intézkedést elrendelő határozatok végrehajtásáról szóló kerethatározatot váltja fel.

• Public Hearing as a Safeguard of Fair Trial in Criminal Proceedings

  46-61

  Tamás Háger

  Views:

  144

  The primary aim of my paper is to examine the questions related to the institute of public hearing. As we know, publicity is one of the most important safeguards of fair trial in criminal procedure. In my opinion, it is necessary to examine these procedural questions in a scientific depth in the light of both the case decisions of the High Courts and the practice of the European Court of Human Rights. The study examines one of the important pledges of a fair trial, the effectiveness of the basic principle of publicity in the criminal procedure. It explores the principle from a dogmatic point of view, and also in the light of both the European standards and the regulations currently in force. It mentions the limitation and exclusion of publicity, and the legal consequences of violating publicity in a great detail. Classic legal institutes are shifted into new dimensions by the technical improvements of the modern world and the media broadcasts from courts, and the paper points it out that for the sake of having an undisturbed court hearing and verification, some modifications on certain legal regulations may be justified. The study also mentions the standpoints of legal literature regarding the notion of publicity in detail, and by summarizing them it attempts to define the notion of the given basic principle as per aspects of law science, considering the characteristics of the 21st century. After the establishment of law theory principles, besides introducing the regulation in force and touching upon court practice, my paper analyzes questions that are more and more current, especially due to the reports by the electronic media, which sometimes cannot only disturb the order of the court, but also the procedure of verification. So, after the examination of basic hypotheses and the legal institute, it draws the conclusion that the development of the legal institute justifies the modification of the procedural law in the future, especially in connection with informing the press.

• The Constitutional Obstacles before the Promulgation of the Rome Statute

  45-59

  Marco Pesci

  Views:

  322

  July 17, 1998, can be considered as one of the most important milestones of the international judicial structure: it is the day when the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court was adopted by 120 states out of 148. Article 86 of Statute explicitly states that „States Parties shall […] cooperate fully with the Court in its investigation and prosecution of crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court.” As in the case of every international treaty, the principle of pacta sunt servanda enshrined in Article 26 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of the Treaties states applies, which explicitly states that “every treaty in force is binding upon the parties to it and must be performed by them in good faith.” As has been pointed out by the Permanent Court of International Justice, contracting states must make all the necessary internal measures which are required to fulfil its international obligations rising from a binding treaty. One could ask, why is this quite obvious argument important in the case of Hungary? Well, Hungary has ratified the Statute but still has not implemented it in its internal legislation. This can be considered as a serious constitutional omission, since if the Court would require the cooperation of Hungary – e.g. in the case of an arrest warrant – and it would not be able to fulfil it because of the lack of the internal legal norms, it would be considered as international legal responsibility of Hungary. In this article, I try to explore the reasons behind this omission and outline the possible solutions.

• Actual Challenges of Delimitation of Continental Shelf on the Example of the Arctic

  67-83

  Erzsébet Csatlós

  Views:

  158

  The concept of continental shelf as an inherent right to coastal State has a history of almost a hundred year but its legal status has several gaps which need to be resolved in the forseeable future. Delimitation of continental shelf between States with adjacent or opposite coasts has been a problematic issue since the elaboration of the legal concept of continental shelf but the present essay aims to highlight some other problems emerging since the first application of Article 76 of UNCLOS. These legal problems are related to the procedure of establishing of the outer limits of continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles. The essay examines these legal problems and demonstrates the challenge caused to the Arctic continental shelf as an example.

• Privacy Issues Regarding the Use of Web Cookies

  43-58

  Anita Boros

  Views:

  318

  EU cookie laws have been in place since 2011, but before the entry into force of the GDPR, the conditions for consent were interpreted differently across Europe. Since the GDPR came into effect, there has been a great deal of interest in how it applies to cookies and similar technologies. The GDPR updated the EU’s longstanding digital privacy framework, with key additions including tightening the rules around consent as a legal basis for processing personal data. The purpose of this study is to clarify for data controllers the rules they need to pay attention to, in order to ensure that the use of cookies on its websites is strictly in accordance with applicable laws

• Rest Periods in EU Labour Law

  Gábor Kártyás

  Views:

  28

  The paper aims to approach the dilemmas of EU working time rules from the novel perspective of rest periods. It examines the functions and nature of rest periods in EU law, with special regard to the ECJ’s recent judgment in the MÁV-Start case (C-477/21). The analysis tackles the question whether rest periods should be regarded as a right or an obligation of the worker and visits the issue of the possible role of a separate right to disconnect. The analysis ends with some conclusions.

• PPP as an umbrella term

  62-78

  Judit Varga

  Views:

  119

  In this study the author examines the legal institution of PPP (Public Private Partnership) in Western legal cultures. As a result of the analysis, the author finds that PPP is a blanket term which includes all contracts concluded between public and non-public sectors where the subject of the contract is the implementation of a public task and the term of the contract is relatively long. The second part of the study collects and analyses the possible classifications of PPP contracts, including the short introduction of the most typical PPP contracts.

• Higher Level Prevention as Public Value in Competition Law

  133-152

  András Tóth

  Views:

  113

  The problem-solving mechanism developed by Sparrow in the field of social regulation could also be implemented in competition law in order to prevent the recurrence of competition problems in a given industry. Competition authorities’ (like protection-type agencies) aim is the creation of public value. This is measured in terms of their ability to solve social problems by preventing or controlling harms. In the case of competition authorities, the public value is achieved by ensuring a competitive market environment through the curtailment of market power and the removal of barriers to entry. The public value of prevention is especially important when markets tend to become concentrated. In order to achieve the maximum preventive effect, all prevention tools must be operated effectively. This includes imposing structural remedies or switching to ex-ante prevention (regulation) when ex-post enforcement proves ineffective.

• The recruitment of Law Students and Some elements of their Image of Profession

  11-37

  Mihály Fónai

  Attila Barta

  Annamária Csilla Gyüre

  Ferenc Pénzes

  Views:

  140

  In our treatise we have undertaken to characterize the speciality of strain of law students and some elements of their image of profession. The legalists traditionally occupy a middle-class position in the modern societies. Their high state and prestige succeed also profession-order characters that frequently go hand in hand with “natality order” procurer prestige.

  From the possible components of the image of profession we examined three main topics. Firstly the motives of profession-selection, secondly the patterns of finding a job, and thirdly the main expectations on legal teaching. Generally, law students and graduates also have a strong linkage to 
  the fact that, not only the diploma, but the profession itself has a powerful charm. The patterns of finding a job show that graduates frequently occupy lower positions, than they expected.

• Advertising Bans in the Internal Market: Limits of State Competence on the Example of the Advertising Ban on Foreign Gambling in Hungary

  12-23

  Franz Leidenmühler

  László Fodor(Translator)

  Judit Balogh(Translator)

  Ildikó Bartha(Translator)

  Views:

  203

  Die ungarischen Werbebeschränkungen für Glücksspiel-Dienstleistungen aus anderen Mitgliedstaaten der EU sind nicht mit den Vorgaben aus dem Unionsrecht vereinbar und können daher aufgrund des Vorrangs des Unionsrechts den Werbenden nicht entgegengehalten werden, die sich auf die Freiheit der Dienstleistungserbringung nach Art. 56 AEUV berufen können. Entsprechend der ständigen Rechtsprechung des EuGH erstreckt sich die Vorrangwirkung auch auf Strafbestimmungen, die an unionsrechtswidrige Normen anknüpfen. Die Unanwendbarkeit der unionsrechtswidrigen Bestimmungen bezieht sich nicht nur auf den in einem anderen Mitgliedstaat ansässigen Dienstleistungserbringer, sondern auch auf die inländischen Werbepartner.

• Strict Liabiliy and Predictability: The Austrian Economic Analysis of Tort Law

  Ákos Szalai

  Views:

  54

  This article provides a critical  analysis of the main claims of the Austrian school of law and economics on tort liability. It reviews the normative claims of the Austrian school. It identifies the requirements the Austrian achool articultes towards law and which can be described in five points. According to them positive law should be (i) abstract, (ii) simple, (iii) predictable, (iv) should change incrementally, and (v) should reflect the basic informal rules, social expectations. They maintain that in the case of tort liability, a prima facie strict liability would meet these requiremes much better than the negligence rule. The article contests this claim and argues that it is not clear that the strict liability would be more predictable or better suited to informal social rules.

• Energy audit: EU-Law and its implementation in Germany

  29-41

  Jan Hoffmann

  László Fodor(Translator)

  Views:

  179

  The Energy Efficiency Directive (EED) No. 2012/27/EU establishes a set of binding measures to help the EU to reach its 20% energy efficiency target by 2020. Energy audits are an essential tool to achieve adequate energy savings (see art. 8. EED). The current study focuses on the EU legal requirement on Energy Audits and its implementation in Germany by the 2015 amended Act on Energy Services and other Energy Efficiency Measures (Gesetz über Energiedienstleistungen und andere Energieeffizienzmaßnahmen – EDL-G). The analysis is still relevant because of the infringement proceedings against Germany by the European Commission based on fragmentary transposition of the EED.

• A divatszakmában dolgozó munkások védelmének helyzete

  105-129

  Dewan Afrina Sultana

  Views:

  344

  The global fashion industry is characterized by a dynamic and complex supply chain. Clothing products and footwear reach consumers through various brands, from developing countries to Western countries. The exploitation of workers at the bottom of the supply chain goes hand in hand with huge benefits for those at the top of the supply chain. Due to the lack of direct contact with workers, brand owners and resellers often ignore the abuse of workers ’rights in the production of their products. Labor law rules alone are not enough to improve working conditions and ensure the rights of workers in the fashion industry. Brand owners and resellers have a vital role to play in changing their working conditions. By incorporating “soft law” solutions such as the UN Business and Human Rights Guidelines and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Screening Guide, responsible business conduct can be achieved. Incorporating voluntary initiatives into the business behaviors of brand owners and resellers has a significant impact on improving employee rights. In this study, I assess how the 2016 Transparency Draft has affected the protection of workers in the global fashion industry, how much the inclusion of Transparency and Sustainable Development Goals has improved the situation of exploitation of workers. The ILO regularly examines the issue through its analysis of human rights reports.