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General Partnerships and the Fiduciary Duty in the US Legal System
58-67Views:247The law of fiduciary duty is as old as common law. It is the key element of the law of equity. The agency relationship creates a fiduciary relationship between the parties, which means that the fiduciary (agent) is subject to the direction of the one on whose behalf he acts (principal). This high standard of conduct – in the scope of the agency relationship – has become a separate liability form in the common law countries and has appeared not only in company law but in other parts of civil law as well. This paper presents the development and the basic elements of fiduciary duty in the field of general partnerships.
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Collective Agreement’s Status in Law
Views:539The collective agreement is a Janus-faced legal phenomenon. From one side it has the nature of a contractual relationship where the parties have the right to determine the content of the contract, also including the choice itself, whether they establish it or not. On the other hand, the collective agreement acts as a legal norm as well. From this aspect its regulations are also obligatory for those persons who were not involved during the set-up process, or even for those who disagrees with some parts of the document. Therefore it is a crucial question in labour law as to how these contracts are handled by law. The Hungarian Labour Code came into force in 2012 contained an approach in which the legislator wanted to empower the legal status of collective agreement. To achieve this goal, in some parts the Act gives the parties the possibility to deviate from the law and to customize the norms in order to make it fit their current relationship. In this paper I examine the nature of the Collective Agreement and show its specialities in the Hungarian legal environment.
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Examination of Quality Management Solutions and Their Applicability in the Context of Right to Information
102-118Views:101With the growing importance of good public administration, the quality of information can be measured primarily through customer satisfaction. In order to provide a uniformly high level of information, it is possible to apply quality management standards and other solutions such as ISO 9000, citizen’s charts and excellence models. However, they are not always able to measure the quality of information in a targeted way, therefore the use of solutions based on customer feedback is required. However, the question arises, whether these classic quality management solutions can still be used in an environment where multi-channel access, electronic communication, automation and artificial intelligence are playing an increasingly important role in public administration and customer information?
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Law and Artificial Intelligence: New character, old solutions? (Thoughts on the book of Jacob Turner)
137-145Views:460Artificial Intelligence (AI) is one of the biggest, if not the biggest, buzzwords of the recent times. While the term was created in the 1950s, until recent times it was the domain of sci-fi writers, who tried to explore its impact on society and humanity. The recent breakthroughs in AI technology and the spread of AI based services created the need for lawmakers and legal scholars to try and tackle the problems that AI creates. Although there are a lot of publications in this area, the book from Jacob Turner stands out in the field. The author has researched the subject very well, and using this knowledge he asks and answers not only the most frequent questions, but also those questions that belong to the foundation of AI and law, and which are often overlooked. This review aims to present these questions and answers to the Hungarian public in a shorter form.
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Approaching Possibilities of Quasi-Judicial Functions
120-135Views:93This article is about the possibilities of Quasi-Judicial Functions. The author bound administrative jurisdiction from court law enforcement.
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The Client and Authority Proceedings in the Digital Era
74-101Views:134The study examines the digital transformation of Hungarian administrative procedure and the advance of automation. Based on statistical data, the study highlights that in connection with digital public administration procedures, the importance of customer-focused services appears as the standard of digital public administration. Digitalization is dominated by electronic contact options, online information and submission of electronic requests, rather than complete automation of administrative procedures. The study focuses on digital authority procedures from the point of view of how this manifests itself primarily for the client: how to satisfy the need for information, how to contact the authorities and how to initiate the procedure. In addition to the legal bases, this part primarily focuses on the possibilities. After that, the consequences of digital solutions (automation) for making substantive decisions from the customer's point of view are discussed; this part of the study therefore concentrates more on the normative side of the processes and finally analyzes this. As a result, it states that automatic decision-making is mainly used in case of registrative acts based on official records and decisions embodied in decision-type documents, but there are already examples of the automation of the decision-making mechanism in connection with the production of facts. Although more complex automation is just spreading its wings, in connection with the rapid technical development and innovations of recent years, the legal system must keep up with digitalization and not give in to it.
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Some theoretical and Practical Issues of Sentencing
11-25Views:239Sentencing is connected to the trial stage of the criminal procedure; more precisely, it takes place at its end. Judges fulfil only a part, and not even the hardest one, of their duty by establishing criminal liability as a result of the evidentiary procedure. Sentencing is a rather complex and complicated process. Judges face a lot of expectations: they often have to reconcile contradictory expectations with each other in order to impose a satisfactory sentence for the parties. The process of sentencing has received intense criticism. Sometimes judges are accused of imposing unduly lenient sentences or criticized for too severe punishments.
Another problem is presented by the fact that different sentences are passed for crimes of the same sort at different courts in the country. Sentencing thus raises many theoretical questions that I seek to answer in the study.
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Is the Implementation of Home Office Legally Feasible? The Criteria for Home Office and its Framework Within Employment Law
59-82Views:1154The year of 2020 was the challenge of “home office”. Although, the publicity uses the term of “home office” as the legal construction of working from home, this approach is misleading. Moreover, the Hungarian Labour Code does not contain any regulation about “home office”, while this legal source embraces two other methods in connection to work from home. These legal institutes are the teleworking and the legal relationship of outworkers. The problem with the aforementioned legal institutes is that the parties must take into account several rules and must apply these solutions regularly, on a permanent basis. However according to the legal literature, the “home office” is created by the economic and human resource management practice of the employers, where they intend to employ the workers mainly at home irregularly, on an ad-hoc basis. At the same time, “home office” does not have a legal framework in the Hungarian Labour Code, therefore the legal literature has been trying to find a real solution for this employment method in the general norms of the Labour Code. In the following article we are going to use the home office definition of the literatures and highlight the background legal institutes and concepts of this working method. Although we are going to set our opinion about which legal institute may be applicable in this sense, in the conclusion we are going to emphasise that legislation and rules regarding “home office” are indispensable.
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One step back. The Hungarian Constitutional Court’s decision about the Liability of Commenting on the Internet
142-150Views:167Restrictions on the freedom of expression have been subject to mixed and constant debates. The debates are increasing in the case of free speech on the internet. In the recent past the Hungarian Constitutional Court had to examine this problem and contribute to the discourse. This article presents decision 19/2014 of the Hungarian Constitutional Court concerning the freedom of expression on the internet. The subject-matter of the case was the liability for the comments. The study intends to show the arguable points of the Court’s reasoning.
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Some Labour Law Aspects of Psychological Contract Theory
50-69Views:201The aim of this paper is to present the central-topics of psychological contract theory, focusing on the relevant labour law contexts. The main research method used is an examination of relevant studies, articles and monographs on the topic, a secondary analysis of empirical research data systematically compiled by the authors, and an exploration of the main labour law aspects and contexts. The difference between an employment contract and a psychological contract is that while the former is a written, legally binding contract, the latter is a theoretical, abstract construct that contains the mutual and implicit expectations of the parties. A psychological contract therefore falls into the category of "extra-legal" contracts, but in certain cases, especially in the event of breach of contract, it may have legal relevance.
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The Challenges of Cryptocurrencies in Substantive Criminal Law and Procedure
79-98Views:905The legal status of cryptocurrencies is a gray area in most legal systems, although criminals increasingly abuse cryptocurrencies to fund criminal activities. The study analyses solely the criminal use of cryptocurrencies. For example money launderers have evolved to use cryptocurrencies in their operations, therefore legislative changes at EU level, or the uniform application of existing anti-money laundering regulations have been required. In a trend mirroring attacks on banks and their customers, cryptocurrency users and exchangers have become victims of cybercrimes themselves. Conventional crimes may be committed via cryptocurrencies such as fraud and extortion. Darknet criminal markets use cryptocurrencies as payment instruments since they offer better anonimity and some of them greater privacy. They are less traceable and their decentralised system challenges law enforcement.
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Historical Salvage as Investment: The Effect of an ICSID Judgment on Two Legal Areas
101-110Views:99In 2007 the ICSID concluded that MHS’s contract with Malaysia to undertake complex salvage operations considered investment even if it had not significantly contributed to Malaysia’s economic development thus failed to fall within the scope of the former interpretation of the notion of investment. This decision is significant in the sphere of international investment law as it synthesizes the former practice of the ICSID concerning the definition and conceptual elements of the notion of ’investment’. Besides, the Diana case serves for the enlargement of salvage law; however it can- not be defined as a classical source of law. It gives a new way to legal protection for salvage activity thus it contributes to the orientation in the chaotic mass of mainly customary rules related to shipwreck salvaging.
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Smart Contracts, Blockchain Technology and the Formulation of a Proposal for Their Application in Public Administration
56-73Views:167The study focuses on smart contracts, emphasizing the opportunities provided by blockchain technology. The main research method used is an examination of relevant domestic and foreign sources on the topic, such as studies and legislation. In addition, we formulate a proposal on how smart contracts and blockchain technology could be applied in public administration, focusing on the real estate registration procedure.
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Human Rights as Fundamental Sources of Patients’ Rights in Light of the Development of Hungarian and German Laws
157-168Views:235Medical practice affects human life and health, which are not just some of the key social values, but actually express the existence of a human being. Therefore, it is a requirement to set the legal standards to guarantee the preservation and respect of human rights during medical treatment. Patients’ rights provide specific types of human rights in the area of patient care. The German legal system grants the preservation of these rights in a contractual framework that cannot be breached. In Hungary, patients’ rights are listed in the Public Health Act. Despite the diverse methods in regulating patients’ rights, the underlying public policy considerations are the same in both systems. The goal of this study is to provide a comparative analysis on the development of the German and the Hungarian regulation of patients’ rights focusing on the consideration of human rights.
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Collective Wage Bargaining and the Related Challenges of Labour Law and Labour Relations Regarding Public Services Operated by Publicly Owned Companies
148-161Views:230In the case of state- and municipality-owned companies providing public services, the 2021 salary increase was settled with a six-monthly delay, which was manifested in three-year, so-called “income policy” agreements. However, for the purposes of this paper, the process became relevant mainly due to the aspect of labor relations and it also became suitable for a legal science analysis. During the course of this, within the available space limits, I discuss the process of salary negotiations (with its labor law content and consequences), the theoretical bases of the different collective labor law regulations regarding public assets, and finally, the newly emerging practical issues related to the strike rights regulation of this sector.
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Challenges and Future Developments of Criminalistics
42-61Views:143This study analysis the futuring theoretical and practical development possibilities of criminalistics – as universal factscience. It tries to sign the further tendencies of forensic sciences in the XXI. century as well. The author composes scientific fields where can be and need to real, intentional strengthening of recent criminalistical methods and writes about his future guessing, suggestions and challanges of criminalistics.
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Protection of Marriage and Family in Central Europe
7-31Views:225It is no exaggeration to say that family plays a prominent role in our daily lives. This study therefore examines the constitutional and family law foundations of family protection in seven Central European countries. The study describes, among other things, the nature of family law legislation, the conceptual approach to family and marriage, the legal protection and solution of extramarital partnerships, such as de facto partnerships and registered partnerships, and the status of children in the countries studied.
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The Criminalisation of Active Bribery of Public Officials: A New KOL Research in Hungary
9-29Views:238The aim of the three-year project “Novelties of Criminal Law in Legal Consciousness” was to measure the knowledge and attitudes of lay people concerning criminal law including regulatory novelties with a questionnaire-based survey. In this paper, the authors analyse the responses to questions related to active bribery of public officials. The research has verified our hypothesis that the average person has a fragmented knowledge even about this sector of criminal law. However, this is partly due to the fact that the respondents – compared to the differentiation of the legal regulation – usually have schematic knowledge on the topic. The answers were strongly influenced by attitudes towards this type of criminality. It was not substantiated, however, that this knowledge is substantially affected by socio-economic factors, by media consumption or by encountering criminality. Our hypothesis regarding the novelty of regulation has been only partially proven: there are more than three times more people whose answers reflect the old regulation than the new one. However, this was not necessarily due to actual knowledge of the older regulation, but rather to the fact that it was more in line with respondents insensitivity to legal distinctions.
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Collision of Judicial Opinions in the Practice of the Curia
Views:30This article examines the 2/2022 PJE Unity Decision of the Curia from the perspective of divergent theoretical and dogmatical views expressed in minority opinions. The case study compares the dissenting opinions and the majority opinion of the judges and aims at demonstrating the fact that theoretical disagreement between judges has a huge impact on legal practice and on the issue of how judges decide cases. The hypothesis of the article is that – in hard legal cases – the reason for the differing opinions is the different theoretical convictions of judges. It seems evident that two legal practitioners, who have different views on cardinal issues of law, such as the concept or the purpose of law, interpret legal norms differently. Using the method of qualitative case analysis, the article analyses the arguments appearing in the justification of the decision.
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Judicial Review in Emergency Situations: the Relevant Case Law of the European Court of Human Rights
200-218Views:127Emergencies are mostly sudden, and in most cases states need special measures to deal with them. For this reason liberal democracies have standing constitutional or special legal powers to derogate human rights for the sake of order. Those democracies that do not have such powers, use impromptu ones. It is possible for authoritarian governments to abuse emergency powers in order to stay in power, to derogate human rights and to silence the opposition. Therefore it is essential for a liberal democracy to have strict limits for the duration, circumstance and scope of emergency powers. There are human rights regimes (for example: the European Convention on Human Rights) which have to respect the member states’ duty and responsibility in such cases. This article tries to examine this special case law of the European Court of Human Rights. The question is whether a European Human Rights regime is capable of becoming the guardian of human rights in cases of national emergencies, or the sovereignty of states also means that there is very narrow margin to prove legality above security?
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New Directions in Vocational and Adult Education, Especially with Regard to Current Issues in the Storage Sector
104-119Views:166The challenges of the Fourth Industrial Revolution are having an impact in many areas of life. The vocational and adult education system is no exception. In line with the changes, system-level transformations and developments are taking place in Hungary in this field, creating the basis for ensuring quality professional training. We consider the issues related to the warehousing sector to be of special relevance, as well as the examination of the possibilities that, in accordance with the new changes, offer solutions to the high-risk activities as well.
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Az európai nyomozási határozat, mint a büntetőeljárás hatékonyságát fokozó eszköz
26-49Views:289A büntetőügyekben folytatott igazságügyi együttműködés egyik célkitűzése egy olyan eljárási rendszer kidolgozása, amely elősegíti a tagállami büntetőeljárások hatékonyságát, így lehetőséget teremt arra, hogy az egyik tagállamban beszerzett bizonyítási eszköz egy másik tagállamban folytatott büntetőeljárás keretében is könnyedén felhasználható legyen. Az Amszterdami Szerződés hatályba lépésétől kezdődően több olyan dokumentum is született, amelyik egy ilyen rendszer megteremtésének szükségességére hívta fel a figyelmet. Az Európai Bizottság (a továbbiakban: Bizottság) 2009-ben kiadott, a büntetőügyekben felvett bizonyítékoknak a tagállamok által másik tagállamtól történő megszerzéséről és elfogadhatóságuk biztosításáról szóló Zöld könyvében számba vette azokat a hatályos jogintézményeket, amelyek „mechanizmusokat biztosítanak a tagállamok számára ahhoz, hogy a határokon átnyúló helyzetekben elfogadható büntetőügyi bizonyítékokat gyűjtsenek,” s megállapította, hogy a bizonyításfelvételt érintő uniós joganyag alapvetően két csoportra osztható. Vannak egyrészt olyan jogintézmények, amelyek kölcsönös jogsegélyre (pl.: kölcsönös bűnügyi jogsegélyről szóló európai egyezmény), másrészt pedig olyanok, amelyek a kölcsönös elismerés elvére épülnek (pl.: európai bizonyításfelvételi parancs). Valójában egyik sem teremti meg azt a mechanizmust, amellyel biztosított lenne a hatékony bizonyításfelvétel egy másik tagállamban, vagy a megszerzett bizonyítási eszközök tényleges felhasználhatósága/elfogadhatósága. E hiányosság kiküszöbölését hivatott szolgálni a 2014. április 3-án elfogadott európai nyomozási határozatról szóló irányelv. Célkitűzése – a büntetőeljárások hatékonyságának a fokozása érdekében – a bizonyításfelvétel és a bizonyítékátadás egységes, a kölcsönös elismerés elvén alapuló rendszerének megteremtése, amely a bizonyítékok minden fajtájára kiterjed, pontos végrehajtási határidőket jelöl meg, és szűk körre korlátozza a megtagadás lehetséges indokait. Az európai nyomozási határozat az alábbi jogintézmények felváltását szolgálja: a kölcsönös jogsegélyen alapuló eszközök közül a Kölcsönös bűnügyi jogsegélyről szóló európai egyezményt és kiegészítő jegyzőkönyveit; a Schengeni Végrehajtási Egyezményt, az Európai Unió tagállamai közötti kölcsönös bűnügyi jogsegélyről szóló egyezményt és kiegészítő jegyzőkönyvét, és bi-, és multilaterális megállapodásokat. A kölcsönös elismerés elvén alapuló eszközök közül az európai bizonyításfelvételi parancsról szóló kerethatározatot, valamint a vagyonnal vagy bizonyítékkal kapcsolatos biztosítási intézkedést elrendelő határozatok végrehajtásáról szóló kerethatározatot váltja fel.