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• “And who will desalt Carthage’s grounds?” – International environmental legal approaches of the Yugoslavian wars 1991-1999

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  Általánosan elfogadott nézet, hogy egyetlen háború sem vívható meg anélkül, hogy ne ártana a természetnek, sőt, ne rombolná le azt; ennél fogva, hosszú időn át a háborúk e hatását elkerülhetetlen következménynek tekintették, melynek megakadályozására nem született átfogó, nemzetközi rezsim.

  A nemzetközi közösségben, az 1990-es években kiteljesedő értékrendváltozás nyomán, azonban egyre erősödött az igény a környezet védelmének háborúk idejére való kiterjesztése iránt is. E folyamattal egyidejűleg a világ számos régiójában törtek ki fegyveres konfliktusok, melyek sajátos esettanulmányokként mutatják be a nemzetközi jogi szabályozás és annak gyakorlati érvényesülése közötti, gyakran ellentmondásos kapcsolatot.

  A tanulmány középpontjába állított, a volt Jugoszlávia területén zajlott konfliktusok számos súlyos kérdésre és hiányosságra hívták fel a nemzetközi közvélemény figyelmét, elsősorban két területen: bizonyos, veszélyesnek tekinthető objektumok támadását, valamint a szegényített urániumot tartalmazó lövedékek használatát illetően, mindkét esetben felvetve a támadásokban közvetlenül érintett Észak-atlanti Szerződés Szervezetének (NATO), valamint tagállamainak esetleges nemzetközi jogi felelősségét.

  A tanulmány első részében vizsgált veszélyes objektumok támadását illetően átfogó képet az UNEP által készített jelentés biztosít, mely azonban maga is több tekintetben árnyalt, olykor ellentmondásosnak tekinthető megállapítást is tartalmaz. A támadások pontos környezeti hatásának tisztázatlansága mellett számos további kérdést hagy nyitva a releváns nemzetközi jogi szabályozás is. Az 1949-es genfi egyezmények és 1977-s kiegészítő jegyzőkönyveik szabályai alapján ugyanis a támadott objektumok nem minősülnek veszélyesnek, ennél fogva kiemelten védettnek, annak ellenére, hogy támadásaik kimutatható környezeti károkat okoztak.

  A tanulmány, és egyben a vizsgált jogterület kulcsproblémája azonban a jogsértés minimális határértékének tisztázatlansága, illetve ésszerűtlenül magasra helyezése, melynek révén csupán a rendkívül nagy területet érintő és páratlanul súlyos szennyezés minősül az egyezmények megsértésének. A szerző megítélése szerint e kritériumrendszer átértelmezése lehet az első lépés a környezet háborúk idején való hatékony védelme kidolgozásához.

  A második vizsgált kérdésként vizsgált szegényített uránium tartalmú lövedékek használata a megosztott és kiforratlan tudományos álláspont miatt további jogbizonytalanságot eredményez.

  Noha e lövedékek a hatályos nemzetközi hadijogi szabályozás alapján nem minősülnek kifejezetten tiltott fegyvereknek, az ilyen lövedéket alkalmazó feleket kifejezett körültekintési és elővigyázatossági kötelezettség terheli a polgári lakosságot érintő káros mellékhatásokat illetően.

  E kérdés tehát továbbra is lezáratlan, azonban a szerző nem zárja ki annak lehetőségét, hogy amennyiben a jövőben e mellékhatások tudományos alapossággal is bebizonyosodnak, a NATO, illetve tagállamai nemzetközi jogi felelőssége felmerüljön.

  Összefoglalóan megállapítható, hogy a hatályos szabályozás, az elmúlt évek fejlődési tendenciái ellenére továbbra is több hiányossággal küzd, különösen a felelősség megállapítása és a kikényszerítési eljárások tekintetében.

  Noha az elkezdett folyamatok a jövőben kiteljesedhetnek, mindaddig, amíg a jelen nemzetközi rendszerben a háborúindítás továbbra is az államok gyakorlatának része, a környezet háborúk idején való védelmének lehetőségei korlátozottak maradnak.

• Kelsen államelméletének alapjai

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  Hans Kelsen was maybe the most famous philosopher of positivism. He became known from various theories that he made in the philosophy of law. Evolution was the characteristic feature of his scienfitic achievement. We can see this development for example in the theories 'origin of the state' and 'will of the state'.

              In 1925 Kelsen made a resume of his theories. This was the "Allgemeine Staatsrechte", which was followed by the "Grundriss einer allgemeinen Theorie des Staates" (Basic rules of the theory of the state) in 1926, which was the shorter form of the previous resume. The following summary can be made of these studies:

  Kelsen made a thorough and detailed examination of the science of law, and realized that the point of view juristical a sociological theories are mostly influenced by the political tendencies. He criticized the dual system of the law of the rules and the law of the individual and he did not make difference between law and state.

              State is somehow the order of the human behaviour. State can be only mentioned as order, where human facts and human behaviour are in symphony. When the rules of the state are dominant, people observe its instructions, sometimes in spite of the different rules of nature. The will of the state doesn't mean all the will of every human being of the state, it's different, it means, that all the rules are made by the state are valid.

              State is not only some kind of authority and a valid order, which is followed by people of the state, it is also effective. This effective means, that people of the state observe the instructions of the state, they act according to these instructions. The system of the rules don't make this effinence on its own, it is helped by the psychologically processes of human beings, that they are obedient to these rules.

  Law and state exist when its authority is felt, and this authority can be felt only in case, when law and state exist. Validity means, that rules must be followed. Validity doesn't depend of efficiency (if it is regularly followed by people). Anyway, the rule which is followed by nobody is not valid, but there is no rule, which is followed by everybody. Permanency is not the prerequisite of validity.

              We can draw up the following question: why seems to be different the act of the state to other type of acts. Every act of the state is committed by a human being, nevertheless we consider this act to the state. Kelsen says, that 'state' is a fixed point of special human acts. We can consider an act as natural or normative one. An act is natural, when it is caused by natural processes. But an act, when it is committed by a human, and the same time it is the manifestation of the state, it corresponds to the order of norms. Norms are rules, and if we follow them, our acts can be considered as a normative act.

              State can be considered as a group of acts, which can be obtained by force. Obtaining is not the way of enforcing the law, it has got only preventive and deterrent function.

              Kelsen sets up the formal an the material definition of the state itself, the definition of state organization, and makes difference of them. Formal state is a larger category, it means the order of law, and all the legal acts. Material state is a smaller category, it contains only some types of norms, like applying the law, and the rules of administration. Material state organization is also a smaller category than formal state organization. It means those acts which are used for obtaining, and also means the function of administration.

              In his studies Kelsen criticized the dual system of the law of the rules and the law of the individual and he said, that law and state is the same. State is equal to all the rules of law, and makes them valid. That is why state can be regarded as law.

• Merre tovább európai büntetőjog?

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  Depuis l’entrée en vigeur du traité d’Amsterdam, la Cour de justice des Communautés européennes a de plus amples compétences dans le Titre VI du traité sur l’Union (3e pilier) consacré á la coopération policière et judiciaire pénale. Á partir de ce moment on peut rencontrer plusieurs arrêts concernant le droit pénal. L’affaire Procédure pénale contre Maria Puppino joue un rôle essentiel parmi ces arrêts. C’était la première fois que la Cour de Justice des Communautés européennes a été saisie d’une question préjudicielle sur l’interprétation d’une décision-cadre adoptée dans le cadre du troisième pilier.

  Dans cet arrêt la Cour souligne l’extention de l’obligation d’interpretation conformément á la décision cadre même si le résultat est contraire aux lois pénales ou procédure pénale internes. Quelques temps après «La Cour de Luxembourg limite la souveraineté des États en matière pénale» -écrivait-on dès le 15 septembre 2005 dans un grand quotidien. Les revues juridiques en droit pénal ont adopté le même ton: «La Cour de justice des Communautés européennes limite la souvaireneté des États en matière pénale.»

  La Cour de Justice a déclaré que la protection de l’environnement constituait un des objectifs essentiels de la Communauté, c’est pourquoi la Communauté a la compétence pour rendre des décisions visant au rapprochement des sanctions des états membres dans ce domain.

  De nos jours la question du droit pénal européen est de plus en plus actuelle, malgré cette substancielle européanisation, de nombreux pénalistes et les états membres défendent plus que jamais les particularités nationales.

  La présente contribution montre brièvement l’histoire du troisième pilier concernant la coopération policière et judiciaire. Puis j’analyse en détail ces deux arrêts mentionnés ci-dessus qui présentent la situation actuelle du droit pénal dans l’espace de l’Union européen.  En suivant les arrêts de la Cour de Justice on peut constater une forte européanisation dans ce domaine mais en même temps on peut voir une certaine «bataille» de compétence entre les institutions européennes notamment entre la Comission et le Parlement contre le Conseil. La Comission veut obtenir de plus en  plus de compétence. En ce qui concerne les états membres, les participants dans le procès préjudiciel combattent contre la Comission et accentuent qu’il faut que le troisième pilier reste dans le cadre de coopération intergouvernementale et ils ne veulent pas renoncer á leurs souvairenités et leurs spécialités dans le domaine pénal. On peut dire qu’il y a deux champs de bataille dans le droit pénal européen, d’une part entre les institutions européennes, d’autre part entre les états membres et l’Union.   

  Dans la «bataille» c’est la Cour qui essaie de résoudre ce problème, donnant de plus en plus de droit á la Comission, renforcant les élements communautaires dans le troisième pilier. Malgré les protestations des États membres, la Cour limite leurs souveraineté en matière pénale. La communautarisation de droit pénal a déja commencé mais il reste beacoup de questions ouvertes. Dans mon article, j’ai posé ces questions et j’ai essayé de trouver les réponses possibles présentant les arguments des differentes parties.   

• A fogyasztói szerződés és alanyai

  28-37

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  83

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• Az európai szerződési jog fejlődésének tendenciái

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• A szoftverek jogi helyzete az Európai Unióban

  181-201

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• Über den juridischen Schutz der Missbrauchsopfer bei Gewalt in der Familie

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  Ágnes Pápai-Tarr

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  Die Gewalt in der Familie ist so alt wie die Geschichte der Menschheit. In den unterschiedlichen Epochen war aber die gesellschaftliche, moralische und juridische Beurteilung der Gewalt in der Familie sehr verschieden. Heutzutage steht fest, dass das Strafrecht ein komplexes, gut durchdachtes Schutzsystem aufbauen und in Stand halten muss, um die Rechte der Missbrauchsopfer bei Gewalt in der Familie zu schützen, oder mindestens zu versuchen dieses zu tun. In meiner Studie nehme ich die Frage unter die Lupe, was das materielle Strafrecht für den Schutz der Missbrauchsopfer bei Gewalt in der Familie tun kann. Der Zweck der Studie ist eine Sammlung der in erster Linie materiellen Strafmaßnahmen, die auch die Missbrauchsopfer bei der Gewalt in der Familie schützen sollen.

• Az új Btk. időbeli hatálya az egyes általános részi rendelkezések tükrében

  63-72

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  Act of 2012 on the Criminal Code came into force on the 1st of July 2013 after a long codification period.  A new Criminal Code always leads to problems in application of law, therefore, it is quite actual to make an examination on new provisions. Some classic provisions of the General Part remained the same, although the penalty system and some other regulations have been renewed. The temporal scope of the new code will possibly be in focus for years.

  The aim of this research is to take an examination on the case law and judicial decisions of Hungarian courts related to temporal scope of the new Criminal Code that is a significant part of this paper. The new Hungarian Criminal Code has been required to be prepared more severe than the former code. The other aim of this research is to revise the new provisions of the General Part resulting in statements about whether these new rules are more severe or more lenient than the Act IV of 1978.For this purpose a close legal interpretation shall be taken into account.

• Az Európai Külügyi Szolgálat szerepe – út a szorosabb európai integráció felé?

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  125

  This essay examines the impact of the European External Action Service (EEAS) on the development of the European integration. First, the historical and institutional precedents, and the development of external institutional system of the EC (EU) are presented. Then it is mentioned in greater details which factors led to the establishment of the institution of the High Representative (HR) and its assisting European External Action Service. The EEAS’s role is analyzed and assessed primarily from the standpoint that – given its operation and power – how the creation of this institution can strengthen the achievement of a closer European integration. This issue is analyzed especially in relation with cooperation, and division of tasks and power with the other EU bodies and institutions that play decisive role in the implementation of the EU’s external actions.

• A szerv- és szövetadományozás polgári jogi érvényesíthetõsége, avagy jogi szabályozásának ellentmondásai

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  Developments in the last centuries in the fields of pharmacy and surgery have had a beneficial effect on the treatment of various diseases and injuries. As a result these two areas have attracted the support and admiration both of the scientific world and the general public.

  The examination of the effects of taking part by human beings has become unavoidable in the healing process. This relationship is unusually complex regards scientific opportunities and fragile in respect of people’s defencelessness.

  Important legal background material is available today relating to organ transplantations. It must be recognized, however, that this legal corpus has been a long time in the making and is still taking shape even today. Although people are trying to establish suitable legal framework for medical law, there are still some weak points and „prejudices”. Nowadays it is necessary to make an attempt at reconciling medical science and law not forgetting about the fact that their approaches are different.

  Medical law is not just about damages. Informing about the topic, the rights and the possibilities, preventing the trials: all of these things are more important. First of all, this is a life-saving procedure and money can not „repair” the problem in that case. Although it sounds cliché, it is true: you can not replace the unpurchasable organ by money. On the other hand, this should be a teamwork between the donors and recipients. They have to cooperate. The „job” of the law – which tries to be objective while it makes rules- should be to consider both views.

  It is well-known that the waitinglists are very long. What is the reason? What kind of solution is able to make the waiting-time shorter? These are very serious questions but the efficient transplantation is the most important. Transplantation is one thing and surviving it is another. And top of all that there is the problem of the „tragedy of the transplantation”: it is often said that donors have no rights. Which should/ can be preferred : the right to live or the right to voluntarism?! Can you decide which system (opt-in or opt-out donation system) gives better solution?!

  Giving a right answer is not so easy. Opt-out system may increase the level of available organs but it does not mean necessarily that there will be more organs for donation with absolute certainty. That is why you can not say simply that the „donor-licence” is a bad idea. There are lot of „ingredients” you should consider: technical developments, public education and last but not least social acceptance. According to the law in the opt-out system doctors should not ask the relatives about their opinions but it is said they usually do it. Is this an efficient system?!

  In my opinion an effective „dialogue” is needed -not only between law and medical science but between the organ donation systems, too- for the sake of a „flexible” legal background which can take part actively in our everydays in the 21st century. 

• A közigazgatási büntetőjog fejlődése a német jogban

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  In dieser Studie versuche ich die historische Entwicklung des Begriffs Verwaltungsstrafrechts, die Änderungen der Dogmatik und die Kodifikation des Ordnungswidrigkeitenrechts vorstellen. Das Rechtswissenschaft interessierte sich lange für die Wesensverschiedenheit zwischen Verbrechen, Vergehen und Übertretungen, also das Problem der Dreiteilung, aber die wichtigste von diesen Fragen war der qualitativ- quantitative Charakter des Unterschiedes zwischen den Übertretungen und den anderen Delikten. Weitere Schwierigkeit war die Festsetzung der Natur der Übertretungen und der Poliezeiübertretungen. Diese Frage war auch ein Forschungengebiet der Internationale Kriminalistische Vereinigung, aber nach viele Kongress und Landesversammlung bliebte die Probleme nicht gelöst.
  Die Bestimmung des selbständigen Verwaltungsstrafrechts versuchten zahlreichen Experten. In 1902 publizierte James Goldschmidt eine Monographie über das Verwaltungsstrafrecht, und leitete seine Theorie von Begriffen Verwaltungswidrigkeit und Verwaltungsdelikt ab und unterschneidete das Verfassungsstrafrecht und Verwaltungsstrafrecht. Der Arbeit löste eine heftige Diskussion aus. Die wesentliche Punkte der Diskussion waren weiterhin die folgende: die strarfrechtliche und die verwaltungsrechtliche Natur der Übertretungen.
  Nach 1945 veränderte sich sehr das Strafrecht und das Nebenstrafrecht im deutschen Recht. Im Wirtschaftstrafgesetz von 1949 traff eine materialle Unterscheidung nach Methode Eberhard Schmidt zwischen Straftaten und Ordnungswidrigkeiten. Auf dieser Grundlage schaffte der Bundesgesetzgeber das Gesetz über Ordnungswidrigkeiten vom 25. März 1952. Nach dem Inkrafttreten dieses Gesetz waren keine Ordnungswidrigkieten mit Freiheitstrafe bedroht, und die wichtigste Sanktionart war die Geldbußstrafe. Der Arrest bleibte nur als zwingende Sanktion neben der Geldbusse eingeführt, damit löste auch die verfassungsrechtlichen Problemen.
  Die Kodifikation war notwendig, weil das OWiG 1952 ein Rahmengesetz war, und Organistaions- und Verfahrensproblemen tauchten auf, beispielweise über die Vereinbarkeit den Ordnungswidrigkeiten und den Verwaltungsregelwidrigkeiten.
  In 1968 kam zustande das Gesetz über Ordnungswidrigkeiten, aber mit der neuen Kodifikation wurden die Diskussion nicht geschlossen. Das Gesetz gibt eine formelle Definition: eine Ordnungswidrigkeit ist eine tatbestandmässige, rechtswidrige und vorwerfbare Handlung, der mit Geldbusse bedroht ist. Aber die Frage der materiellen Definiton der Ordnungswidrigkeiten eschäftigen die Rechtsliteratur bis auf den heutigen Tag.
  Endlich stelle ich in diese Studie die grundlgenden materiellrechtlichen und verfahrensrechtlichen Rechtsinstituten vor, also den Geltungsbereich des Gesetzes, die Grundlagen der Ahndung, das Sanktion des Ordnungswidrigkeit, also die Geldbuße, und das Geldbußverfahren.

• A meghatalmazottakra vonatkozó szabályok a hatályos Polgári Perrendtartás és a 2008. évi XXX. törvény tükrében

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• A csalás értelmezési lehetőségei az osztrák büntetőjogban

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  55

  It is a well known fact that the legal system of Hungary has a close relation to the legal system in Austria. This should be interesting to examine on which grounds and points the two systems differ from each other. To achieve this challenge, provisions of fraud – as an ancient legal institution – could be a perfect starting point. The essay would like to stress the most important significances of fraud in Austria from both scientific and practical viewpoints.

• Ismertető az Évtizedek a kriminológiában – Szabó Dénes 80 éves című kötetről

  20-22

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• A felelősség intézményének alakulása a kezdetektől a XX. század végéig

  69-85

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• Az autóbusszal közlekedő utasokat az Európai Unióban megillető jogok

  27-37

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  119

  The European Parliament and the Council adopted new rules for passengers traveling by buses. The 181/2011/EU Regulation concerning the rights of passengers in bus and coach transport developed a strict liability of bus carriers in cases of delay and cancellation. It deals with accidents, the meaning of right to information, handling of complaints, and the non-discrimination and mandatory assistance for disabled persons and persons with reduced mobility.The Regulation is entered into force on March 21st 2013. The article is about to analyze the content and the meaning of these new rules and rights passengers have when they use bus transportation.

• A pszichiátriai betegek gyógykezelése elrendelésének és bírósági felülvizsgálatának elméleti és gyakorlati kérdései

  65-80

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  124

  We can see that the practice of the judicial inspection is not always in accordance with the legislation.

  The decisions made during the judicial inspection should be written down and delivered as soon as possible. The patient, the head of the institute and the designated medical doctor must be heard smoothly in all cases. All these questions form essential elements of the legal institution of judicial inspection, and, unfortunately, they are still waiting for legal clarification.

• Beszámoló Az új büntetőeljárási törvény első éve címmel megrendezett konferenciáról

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• A helyi önkormányzatok és az Alkotmány a pénzügyi jog aspektusából

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  65

  In my study I deal with the connection between the local governments and the Constitution in the aspect of Financial Law.

  The local governments’ essential rights have been laid down  in the Constitution in a separate (IX.) chapter. The defence of the local governments is different from the defence of fundamental human rights. The latter has the test of necessity and proportionality. The local governments’ constitutional rights can be restricted until the infringement of its fundamental contents.

  I examined the rights of the local governments connected with the Financial Law, so I was engaged mainly in the financial support of it and the right of property and tax assessment. The Constitutional regulation of the financial support is most unique. The difference is that this paragraph (44/A. § (1) c) is not a rule of competence and jurisdiction however an obligation for the state to guarantee the self income and the proper state support to the local governments. The most important own sources are the taxes, which are necessary to discharge the duties. The authority to issue taxes derives from the Constitution - 70/I. § and 44/A. § (1) d. These paragraphs  prescribes that every natural and legal person must contribute to rates and taxes depend on their income and estate.

  The local governments may issue taxes within the framework of law, but their legislation is wide-ranging within it, for this reason there are a lot of instructive judgements of the Constitutional Court.

• Személyes adatok védelme az interneten

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  38

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• A tanú zártcélú távközlő hálózat útján történő kihallgatása, mint a tanúvédelem külön nem nevesített eszköze

  23-28

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  53

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• EU-Ukrajna Társulási Szerződés, avagy az európai integráció új formája

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  87

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• Gondolatok az erkölcsi károkhoz kapcsolódó hozzátartozói igények megengedhetőségéről

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  48

  On the very swampy field of damages for non-pecuniary loss there is a special problem called claims of relatives. These claims are also known as claims of secondary victims or third parties. In this legal situation the injury itself hurts not the claimer himself. The claimer has non-pecuniary or moral loss because of his connection with the injured person. He is not the direct and suffering subject but the one who has a loss in his personal rights.

  In Hungary the question is whether these claims can be permitted or not. During the changing structure of damages for non-pecuniary loss in the second half of the 20th century, this problem fitted to the actual judgement of moral damages. Now days the question is a little bit easier: in almost every decision courts admit the right of relatives to claim damages for an injury against there beloved relative, but in most of the cases they demand that plaintiffs has to demonstrate manifested losses not only the infringement of their personality rights.

  In this essay beside the Hungarian jurisdiction I examine German, French, English, Belgian and Dutch legal points of view too. The most interesting and – in my opinion – the one that can be useful for the upcoming new Hungarian Civil Code is the Dutch system.

  Dutch Civil Code limits the possibility of ‘third parties’ to claim damages for non-pecuniary loss as a result of the injury or death of another person. In typical cases the plaintiff would like to claim compensation because he suffered mental illness from witnessing the death of another person, namely a relative. This claim is not awarded by Dutch courts because of the prohibition of Civil Code, but the interpretation of the mentioned provision lives restrictively in jurisdiction. We can find two situations when the claim of third parties can be awarded. First of all, the claimant can only claim for damages, caused by a mental trauma because of being witness of an injury against another person, if he can establish that the aggressor (defendant) also committed an unlawful act vis-à-vis the claimant himself, which resulted in the trauma. It is really difficult to be demonstrated because of the causation required by BW. The process to verify that the aggressor, who committed an unlawful act against another person, causes the trauma is almost impossible in some cases. The second chance of the secondary victim to claim for compensation is if he verifies that the trauma amounts to physical or non-physical injury. If this is the case, the claimant can get compensation of his pecuniary loss (such as cost of medical treatment) and non-pecuniary loss on the basis of his non-physical personal injury.

  A famous case in Dutch case law is ‘Taxi bus case’. A 5-year old little girl was riding her bike close to her home, when a taxi bus overruns her. The bus actually rides over the girl’s head. The mother was immediately warned by one of the neighbours and found her daughter with her face turned to the ground. First, the mother called the ambulance hoping that the girl was still alive. When the mother tried to turn her daughter’s head to look her in the face, she experienced that her hand disappeared into the skull of the girl. The mother noticed that the substance next to her girl’s head was not, as she considered, her vomit, but appeared to be the girl’s brain itself. The mother suffered severe mental illness because of the shock of this sight and the realization. Dutch law is consequent in the question that there is no claim for non-pecuniary damages subsequent to death of a relative.  Taxi bus case was the first when Dutch Supreme Court awarded the right to compensation of non-pecuniary damages to somebody who lost his relative. The decision contained that the act committed towards the child, must also be regarded as tortuous towards the mother. The Court emphasized that there was a distinction between the consequences of the child’s death, for which no non-pecuniary damages may be awarded, and the consequences of the confrontation with the accident, for which damages may indeed be awarded. The mother received 14,000 Euros for non-pecuniary damages. This case shows that although in principle the plaintiff has a right to claim compensation for the exact damages he suffered, the courts are free to assess the damage in a more abstract way, if that corresponds better to its nature.

  Examining this case it is obvious that extra conditions are demanded to claim for non-pecuniary damages because of the loss of a relative. Only the fact of losing a close relative is not enough for a successful action. There have to be special circumstances, which demonstrate that the unlawful act made a direct effect to the plaintiff, who became the primary victim.

  The English solution is interesting because not only the relatives have right to claim but almost anybody who can verify a close relationship with the injured person. In my opinion this system ensures a more coherent and logical jurisdiction, because during the examination of authorization not only a legal fact – being a relative of the injured person – establishes the right to claim but a real emotional relationship.

• A társadalomra veszélyességben való tévedés gyakorlati jelentősége a gazdasági bűncselekmények kapcsán

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  In this study I examined the error, one of the grounds for the preclusion and termination of punishability. Grounds for the preclusion of punishability and grounds for the termination of punishability, mean that punishability shall be precluded. Error, as an obstacle of the preclusion of punishability, doesn’t happened as usually as other grounds for the preclusion of punishability, for example: insane mental state, constraint and menace. The error means- 27. §- the perpetrator shall not be punishable for a fact, of which he was not aware on perpetration. The person, who commits an act in the erroneous hypothesis that it is not dangerous for society and who has reasonable ground for this hypothesis, shall not be punishable. Error shall not exclude punishability, if it is caused by negligence, and the law also punishes perpetration deriving from negligence. I examined how often the judge accept an error, if the person commit a crime, for example: tax fraud, practise usury, bribe somebody. Is it exceptional or not? When can the perpetrator of a crime refer to error? What examine judge?

• A kényszermunka tilalma és a hátrányos megkülönböztetés tilalma összefüggései az Emberi Jogok Európai Bírósága esetjogában

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  67

  The European Convention on Human Rights sets forth a number of fundamental rights and freedoms, including prohibition of slavery and forced labour (Article 4.) and the prohibition of discrimination (Article 14.). However, the European Convention on Human Rights prohibits discrimination only in relation to the enjoyment rights protected in the text of the Convention and did not originally include a provision proclaiming the equality of all before the law. As the European Court of Human Rights stated in Abdulaziz case: „Article 14 ... has no independent existence since it has effect solely in relation to „the enjoyment of the rights and freedoms” safeguarded by those provisions. Although the application of Article 14 does not necessarily presuppose a breach of those provisions - and to this extent it is autonomous -, there can be no room for its application unless the facts at issue fall within the ambit of one or more of the latter.”

  In this study we examine only the relationship between Article 4. and Article 14 of the Convention. There is only one case, in which the applicant could call upon Article 4 and Article 14 together with success before the European Court of Human Rights: the case of Van der Mussele versus Belgium. For this reason we introduce not only this basic case, but lots of other cases, in which there were no discrimination in connection with Article 4. The applicants should find another group of persons are in analogous situations, which worsens the position of applicants seriously because of the difficulty of this condition.

  In the above mentioned Van der Mussele case the applicant Belgian lawyer stated that Belgian lawyers are subject to less favourable treatment than that of members of a whole series of other professions, because in legal aid cases lawyers have to work without any remuneration, but the State accords remuneration to judges, registrars and interpreters in these cases. The Court emphasized that everybody could know the conditions of a profession in advance, and in the light of these conditions could choose it or not, and nobody compelled the applicant to be a lawyer. For this reason legal aid cases cannot be considered as forced labour, independently the remuneration of these cases.