Keresés

Keresési eredmények

• A szerződési jog alapelveinek értelmezése és funkciói a német polgári jogban

  Csécsy Andrea

  Megtekintések száma:

  52

  To describe the functions of principles we can say that all of them are fundamental basis of an area of law. They declare or solve concrete debates between the parties. If there is a problem with interpreting of a rule in the civil code, judges has this helping hand. In Germany the development of principles in the field of contract law has a really unique historical root. At the time of BGB’s birth, the German Civil Code did not accept any exculpation under the rule pacta sunt servanda. Moral philosophers acknowledged that a contract as private interest of the parties needs special protection from the state. It is not only a personal relationship, because self welfare leads to welfare of the public. The law has to regulate this field and give instruments of protection for both parties to ensure peace and equality in the field of public relations and moral.

  After the First World War, Rechtsmark (German currency) had its deepest point in its history. The inflation was so high that the performance of a contract made before the war was absolutely unfair for the supplier. For the cost of one galloon gas anyone could buy the entire stock after the war. There was a too late and too small reaction from the state for this situation. An Act had been accepted in 1925 about revalorization. The main fault of this Act was the strict and very small applicability in the field of contracts. The regulations of it were applicable only for contracts with large economic potential.

  German jurisdiction had to solve the problem. The most difficult part of this process was how to dissolve the strict paradigm of pacta sunt servanda. Oertmann, a German legal expert created the collapse of the foundation of the transaction. It meant that changed circumstances deprive the contract from its ground, the need of the party. Anybody who signs a contract has a need and tries to create all conditions of that specific contract to harmonize with his or her needs and interest. In case of an essential change of circumstances this interest modifies and the original transaction became tremendously onerous for him or her. The doctrine of Oertmann was insisted on pacta sunt servanda, so after the change of circumstances the whole contract failed.

  Jurisdiction in Germany accepted Oertmann’s doctrine with a completion. Judges vindicated the right for themselves to modify the contract to be suitable for the new interests of the parties. This modification meant the implementation of clausula rebus sic stantibus into German contract law. It became applicable worldwide in the field of long term relationship of the parties.

  In this essay I examine not only the development of these contractual principles in Germany but the effectiveness and functions of them. I describe and define the legal interest of regulating contracts and what is the connection between private and public interest in the field of the law of contracts. As a defect of the contractual procedure non-performance and other breach of a contract have special importance in civil law. Good faith is a basic principle of civil law in Hungary too and in most European civil codes. The interpretation of German good faith theory (Treu und Glauben) is significant from the viewpoint of the judicial modification of contracts. In case of clausula rebus sic stantibus if the party wants to ground his or her claim, he or she has to prove the good faith as a moral standard to be an exculpation under the heavy burden of pacta sunt servanda. The conclusion is that in Germany the basic element of private contracts is not the consent of parties but good faith of them. The socially excepted moral appears through the requirement of good faith of the parties. The law has to ensure that in any period of a contractual relationship this good faith exists.

• A versenytilalmi megállapodás

  20-28

  Ember Alex

  Megtekintések száma:

  249

  The “agreement on non-competition” is essentially the extension of the protection of the basic economic interest of the employer. While during the employment relationship several labor law provisions protect the interest of both parties, the “agreement on non-competition” is designed to protect the employer’s interests after the termination of the relationship. This means – in return for financial compensation – the former employee needs to refrain from any kind of business competition against his/her former employer. This necessarily involves financial compensation and may have several restrictions, such business or geographical area or time.

   

  The previous Labor Code did not specify for detailed regulation of the issue and the law remained rather vague. It merely referred to the fact that parties – based on their own free will – may enter into such agreement. However the new Labor Code contains explicit regulations under title XVIII of the Act as “Particular Agreements Related to Employment”.

   

  The “agreement on non-competition” belongs to the field of employment law. Unlike the previous Labor Code that categorized this possible agreement as of purely civil law in nature, the new Labor Code declares it to belong under the scope of the Labor Code. The previous regulation even ordered the provisions of the Civil Code to be applied to such agreements however the new legislation brought a conceptual change.

   

  The currently effective regulation provides for a 2-year limitation on such conduct on the employee’s part that would create competition with the employer. The exact amount of the consideration payable for this obligation remains to be decided by the parties however the Labor Code suggests that it shall be based on how difficult the applied restrictions make it for the employee to find another job with his qualifications and experience. As a basic limit the law provides that the amount shall not be less than one-third of the base wage payable for the same period of time.

   

  The “agreement on non-competition” is not to be confused with similar legal institutions. The paper points out two close similarities in the legal system. One being the employee’s obligation of confidentiality; this prevails after termination of the employment relationship as well without any time or similar restrictions and even without any financial compensation. The other one is the so called “non-compete” agreement from the field of competition law. This is applicable after takeovers where the seller shall refrain from engaging into business in the same area as the buyer.

   

  In the field of labor law the time period for the “agreement on non-competition” is up to the agreement of the parties however the new law invokes an upper limit of two years that is following the termination of the employment relationship. This is a decrease from the previous regulation that provided for a period of three years. The agreement can be modified by the consent of both parties just like the employment contract or civil law agreements.

   

  In case of violation of the agreement three cases are to be analyzed. The first is the case of the employee breaching the provisions of the contract. In this case the employee is liable for damages towards his/her former employer. The provisions of the new Civil Code and those of the Labor Code are to be applied to the damages. In the second case the employer may request an injunction to prohibit the employee from any conduct breaching the agreement while the third case involves the breach of the agreement on the employee’s part for which the rules of the Civil Code and the Labor Code are to be applied as well.

• A szabadalmi jogi szerződés és hatásai a hazai jogban

  Petkó Mihály

  Megtekintések száma:

  78

  Significant changes have happened on the field of intellectual property law in the last few years. The emphasis placed on the material relations and economy became stronger. These changes caused that creations of the man came into the limelight. Of course the legal background became also very important.

  We can feel the re-regulation of this legal field. Legal institutions became regulated in new Acts to be adjusted modified circumstances. There were several causes of the necessity of these changes. First of all, the new economic and social environment after the change of the regime claimed to modify the legal materials. On the other hand the international environment changed rapidly and it is still in progress. So the Republic of Hungary had to face with the obligations that are stated in international treaties and we had to put a strong emphasis on our member status in the European Union: EU regulations and directives. By now we can tell that re-codifying this area is over, we can only expect to small modification in the near future.

  Modifications in most of the cases prepared for the future. But it does not mean that we can count on a very crystallized legal material. In the dynamically developing world of IP law it is not rare to use smaller modifications. We have to examine the legal practice too, that helps us finding the correct way in the fast changing economical and social relations. Performing the harmonization duty, legislator could not always take into consideration the national significances, legal practice. The lack of examining these circumstances can cause modifications in the legal material.

  The Patent Law Treaty adopted at Geneva on June 1st, 2000. The provisions of the Treaty and the Regulations shall apply to national and regional applications for patents for invention and for invention and for patents of addition, which are filed with or for the Office of a Contracting Party. The Patent Law Treaty became applicable on April 28th, 2005.

  Hungary joined the Treaty at the beginning, because of the need in 2008 to change the Hungarian patent law. The Treaty suggests the European Patent Convention, however in many ways it is the complementary. The Treaty gives types of applications permitted to be filed as international applications under the Patent Cooperation Treaty, divisional applications of the types of applications referred to in item.

  Earlier the rules of Hungarian patent law were complicated, the process of registry was less favorable for the patentee. The harmonization of process rules effects that the patentee cannot lose his patent rights. The new rules introduce an electronic process in patent law, which makes the process easier, cheaper, and faster. But not all the procedures became electronic: only the lodgment of petition. In the future that should be better to reach electronic procedure on every level.

  The harmonization of patent rules means liberalization, the notification will be easier and faster, which effected growth in the trust of business. Process rules need more harmonization in the future, and hopefully the final goal will be one global process at in all member states of the European Union. 

• A kisajátítási kártalanítás

  Andorkó Imre

  Megtekintések száma:

  203

  The regulation of expropriation law is indicative of the sound of rule of law. It shows how the state treats vulnerable groups, and people adversely affected by expropriation. In this paper I will give a short overview of the rules concerning compensation for expropriation, from the inception of expropriation law, right up to 2014. I pay particular attention to the characteristics of the regulation in the socialist era between 1948, and the regime change in 1989/1990. I expand on how Hungary tried to free itself of the burdensome heritage of the socialist regulation of that law, after the regime change of 1989/1990. Then I review the current status of legal regulation concerning compensation for expropriation that gives me a great opportunity to and explain suggestions de lege ferenda.

• Kétoldalú nemzetközi szerződés alkalmazásának felfüggesztése fegyveres konfliktus miatt

  28-32

  Szalai Anikó

  Megtekintések száma:

  75

  The effect of armed conflict on bilateral international treaties of the belligerent parties has undergone a considerable change in the past century. From the concept of termination as the effect of armed conflict by the time of World War II practice of the States had reached the position of suspension of application or no effect at all. This question is regulated solely under customary international law, but the practice of states and doctrine is not readily available and sometimes may be contradictory.
  Suspension in the case of armed conflict considerably differs from the rules set out in the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. The lengthy procedure which is based on the negotiation of the parties of the relevant bilateral treaty is almost impossible in the circumstances of an armed conflict, especially with respect to the hostile relationship between the parties.
  When dealing with this issue one finds that in the practice of States non-application of treaties during an armed conflict exists, however from the viewpoint of principles of international law, namely the principles of pacta sunt servanda, good faith, ex injuria jus non oritur and rule of law this practice - to say the least - is questionable.

• Az infláció hatása a magánjogi jogviszonyokra

  45-72

  Kiss Tibor

  Megtekintések száma:

  248

  Évtizedek óta nem láttunk olyan áremelkedést Magyarországon, illetve Európában és általában a világon, mint amivel 2022-ben voltak kénytelenek szembesülni a fejlett világ lakói. Az infláció 2022 decemberében Magyarországon 24,5 % volt, 2023 januárjában pedig a mutató 25,7 %-on állt. Az írás összefoglalja az inflációval kapcsolatos lényeges fogalmakat, kitérve az infláció definíciószerű megközelítésén túlmenően annak fajtáira, illetőleg annak mérésére vonatkozó legfontosabb elvekre, módszerekre. A gazdasági fundamentumok alapvetően meghatározzák a magánjogi jogviszonyokat, jogintézményeket is. Ilyen esetben beindul a válságjogi jogalkotás, ami elsődlegesen azokat a területeket érinti, amelyek a gazdaság működésére, a fogyasztók mindennapjaira a leginkább kihatással vannak. A jelen írás áttekinti azokat a fontosabb civiljogi struktúrákat, és az azokat szabályozó Polgári Törvénykönyvbeli, illetőleg egyéb törvényi és kormányrendeleti szintű szabályokat, amelyek tartalmát egy tartós inflációs környezetben indokolt módosítani, de amelyek ezidáig nem kerültek a jogalkotó fókuszába, hangsúlyozva a magánjogi normáknak a megváltozott gazdasági környezethez történő igazításának szükségességét. Azokat a jogszabályokat tekinti át az írás, amelyekben a jogalkotó a jogszabály szövegében rögzít értékre, árra utaló adatokat, nominálisan meghatározva, számszakilag konkrétan megjelölve azt az árat, értéket, amely jelentős szerephez jut egy adott magánjogi jogviszonyban. Ez a fajta jogalkotás azonban egyáltalán nincs tekintettel az értékviszonyok változására, így arra, hogy inflációs környezetben a magánjogi normában nominálisan rögzített ár- és értékadatok nem igazodnak a gazdasági folyamatokhoz, azaz nincsenek összhangban a mindenkori, gazdasági fundamentumok által determinált árszínvonallal. A szerző javaslatokat fogalmaz meg, szabályozási technikákat vázol fel ezen jogszabályi rendelkezéseknek a megváltozott ár- és értékvisszonyokhoz történő igazítására irányuló jogszabálymódosításra.

• A közigazgatás szervezeti változásai a szabálysértési jog fórumrendszere tükrében

  Árva Zsuzsanna

  Megtekintések száma:

  141

  The paper introduces the most recent processes taking place within the Hungarian public administration from a special aspect and follows the system of the authorities of the misdemeanor law from the 19th century to nowadays. It presents the system of the monarchy, the councils and the period after the change of regime. The Constitutional Court with its Resolution no. 63/1997 (XII. 12.) declared the dual nature of offences – being against public administration and bagatelle cases pertaining to criminal law – and although with a different legal reasoning, it prescribed the right of access to court in both cases. The mentioned separation has resulted in conceptual problems exerting their influence to this day, at the same time the majority of authors dealing with this field instead of the majority opinion accepted the concurrent explanation of László Sólyom, to which Constitutional Court Judges János Németh and Tamás Lábady also joined. In 2012, however, several important changes took place simultaneously. The new Act on Offenses shifted towards criminal law while it terminated the right of local governments to regulate offenses. In parallel with this, the Act on Local Governments at the beginning provided an opportunity for the local governments to sanction anti-social behavior which was revoked by the Constitutional Court in the same year. The paper investigates the effect of the decisions of the Constitutional Court and analyzes the opportunities of public administration within the present legal framework to apply sanctions and defines those criteria on the basis of which the legislator could settle the current situation.

• Az érzelmek felfedezése : – avagy a „law and emotion scholarship” a jogelméletben

  47-53.

  Kovács Zsófia Dóra

  Megtekintések száma:

  181

  Az „ideális bíró” nem ismeri az érzelmeket. A bírói székben ülve minden érzelmet kizárva objektíven és racionálisan hozza meg döntéseit. A jogelméleti gondolkodásban egészen az elmúlt pár évtizedig ez az egyelten lehetséges bírói ideál élt és tagadhatatlanul nagyon erősen van jelen mind a mai napig. Azonban az 1960-as évektől kezdődően az angolszász jogi kultúrában, elsősorban az Amerikai Egyesült Államokban, szemléletváltás indult el. Gyors fejlődésnek indultak a jogot interdiszciplináris igénnyel vizsgáló irányzatok. Önálló irányzattá vált a jogelméleti gondolkodáson belül a Critical Legal Studies mozgalom. Emellett óriási előrelépés történt az érzelmek tudományos vizsgálata terén is, ahol mind a pszichológia, mind az idegrendszert vizsgáló neurotudományok komoly eredményeket értek el. Mindezen tényezők együttesen alapozták meg a jog és érzelem mozgalom (Law and Emotion Scholarship) megjelenését. A mozgalom egy kialakulóban lévő interdiszciplináris terület, amely a jog, pszichológia, irodalom, közgazdaságtan és filozófia területéről egyesíti azokat a tudósokat, akik határozott érdeklődéssel fordulnak a jog jelenségei és az érzelmek kölcsönhatásának vizsgálata felé. Kutatásomban elsősorban a mozgalom bírói ítélkezéssel kapcsolatos megállapításaira koncentrálok, vizsgálva azt, hogy hogyan kaphatnak szerepet az érzelmek a bírói döntéshozatalban. Hiszen a jog és érzelem mozgalom képviselői – a hús-vér bírák valóságát figyelembe véve – megkérdőjelezik annak gondolatát, hogy létezhet érzelemmentes bíráskodás.

• Az agrárgazdaságok átadásáról szóló törvény egyes magánjogi aspektusai

  65-97

  Dúl János

  Megtekintések száma:

  91

  A tanulmányban az agrárgazdaságok átadásáról szóló törvényt vizsgálom meg, alapvetően azon rendelkezésekre fogok kitérni, amelyek a magánjoggal összefüggésbe hozhatók. A törvény megalkotásának célja a generációváltás megkönnyítése volt az agrárium területén, véleményem szerint az agrárgazdaságok átadásának hatékony eszközei lehetnek a gazdaságátadási szerződések, azt jelenleg azonban még nem tudni, mennyiben lesznek valóban alkalmazott módszerek, és mennyiben tudják beváltani a hozzájuk fűzött reményeket.

• Peter Goodrich és a Satirical Legal Studies

  Bereznay Gábor

  Megtekintések száma:

  52

  Satirical Legal Studies is a study by Peter Goodrich, written in 2005. It was published in Michigan Law Review. I wrote my essay with the purpose of analyzing the main points of this study because – as I know – it has not been translated or published in Hungarian yet.

  Goodrich gives a comprehensive analysis of the history of the satirical genres, making comparisons, revealing the most important characteristics of these kind of writings. It is the function that distinguishes simple humour from satire and especially legal satire. Satire uses humour as a tool for pointing out to relevant legal matters that need to be changed, so it can easily be admitted that the purpose of satire is reform itself. It means also that the satirical tendencies in jurisprudence have always become stronger in times of need for reforms but we can state that independent of this satire has (more or less) always been present throughout the history of jurisprudence.  

  Satire has classical, antique traditions that show us the connections between satire and politics or literature. The literary vein of satire or legal satire is less radical than the other one which is in close connection with politics. The latter, more radical form is called Menippean satire and the style of it has always been a certain call for reforms, it always represented a certain social urge to change some relevant legal matters.

  The study deals with the problems of metaphysical nonsenses in the territory of law, such as for example law would be God made, or it could be unchangeable. Satirical Legal Studies clearly states that these are all contradictional nonsenses. Besides this Satirical Legal Studies has always represented and fought against the social injustice and the injustice of legal institutions.

  These main points guide us to the figure of the Bad Man, whom the author, Goodrich features as the immunological power of the society revealing all the serious social affairs waiting for an answer. Taking all these facts into consideration the Bad Man is not a tool for the idea of Bad, what’s more: he is or can be the cure for a society’s illness if the legal system does not ignore him and his voice at all because his decadence is only the decadence of the certain time and place that he is a part of. The role of satire is to face the legal system with the pure reality and needs in order to become adequately reactive.  

• Drónok a horizonton, gyerekjáték vagy új veszélyes üzem?

  88-107

  Szikora Veronika

  Szilágyi Gábor

  Megtekintések száma:

  135

  The reason why We have chosen this topic for my research is that new technologies have appeared in our environment, particularly the unnamed aerial vehicle. In Hungary, similarly to some other countries, there is a gap in the legislation concerning the use of UAV.

  The UAV technology raises many questions because these vehicles can be used for several reasons. It is necessary to analyse in depth the legal environment of UAV and to change our perspective because it is not enough to consider the legal context; technical and other aspects have to be taken into consideration as well.

  Most academic sources concerning the usage of UAV focus on the military use of UAV. In my research I focus on the topic from the aspects of civil law; the reason for this is that I consider the legal restrictions concerning the ordinary vehicles used for everyday purposes not for governmental ones.

  The main goal of our paper is to study how the usage of UAV can be legally controlled. This question is important because the number of these vehicles are gradually growing which leads to several legal issues, for instance privacy or tort.

  In our research We have analyzed the international laws and regulation plans, the international laws, draft legislation. The „abnormally dangerous activities” that appear in the title of the paper is only a call for attention to evaluate the liability in the civil law.

  The other aim of our paper is to make a proposal to set up a work group who is going to work out the regulations in detail. Legislators and researchers could participate in the work group, among whom are technical and legal professionals as well.

• Alkotmányozási eljárások Magyarországon (1989-2011)

  Balogh Éva

  Megtekintések száma:

  173

  In my research paper I study the Hungarian constitutional processes. The subjects of my analysis are three periods, namely the change of the political system in 1989, the constitutional attempts from 1994 to 1998, and the constitutional process between 2010 and 2011.

  The processes are examined on the basis of the two notions: “legality” and “legitimacy”. Under the concept “formal legality”, I mean the legal validity of the constitutional process; i.e. whether the constitutional process takes place in accordance with the current legislation. The concept of “legitimacy” has two aspects. On the one hand, empirical legitimacy investigates whether the citizens de facto accept the constitution and value it as respectable independently of the normative motives of its acceptance. On the other hand, normative legitimacy examines whether the constitution is based on justifiable principles and whether it might be considered as legally binding.

  The constitutional process in 1989 - aimed at establishing a democratic transition – took place within round-table discussions of the representatives of the old system and the strengthened opposition. As a result of the radical changes, the democratic Constitution was established in Hungary and the multi-party system also developed. The outcome of the discussions was the general supervision of the Constitution. Formally, there was only an amendment to the Constitution in 1989; however, as regard its content, a completely new norm was established.

  Since the change of the political system in 1989, the idea of creating a new constitution emerges again and again in the Hungarian public life. In the course of the elections in 2010, a party alliance (in which both parties represented the same political line) reached the required two-thirds majority in the Parliament, and aimed at establishing a new constitution. The result of the constitutional process is a completely new constitution (both the form and the content of the previous constitution were changed).

  All things considered, it can be stated that the amendment to the Constitution in 1989 was accepted lawfully by the Parliament of the old system, i.e. the constitutional process was legal, and in a normative sense, a legitimate Constitution was created. In 2011, the Fundamental Law of Hungary (Hungarian: Magyarország Alaptörvénye) was adopted on the basis of the procedure determined by the Constitution in 1989, i.e. the constitutional process was legal, though; the present research paper highlights some elements of the constitutional process that might be criticized. At present, the legitimacy of the Fundamental Law of Hungary is controversial from both sociological and normative perspectives.

• A élettársi kapcsolatról a hatályos bírói gyakorlat és a Ptk. Koncepció alapján

  Ács Alexandra

  Megtekintések száma:

  72

  An examination of the statistical data reveals that the number of marriages concluded has significantly decreased in recent years, accompanied by an increase in divorce cases. In a parallel way, there is a growing number of domestic partnerships.[1]

  This study surveys the judicial practice of this field in the past two decades with the intention of attempting to describe and shed some light on the essence of domestic partnership in Hungary by way of discussing some of the most important cases and the relevant provisions of law. In view of the fact that preparation for the codification of the new Civil Code is now under way and new rules are expected to enter into force in 2 or 3 years, the changes anticipated in this area are also briefly addressed in the study. Since the Proposal intends to change the current legal provisions in three areas, special emphasis was laid on these, namely:

  1. Under certain conditions, as defined by law, alimony may be awarded to a formal domestic partner.

  2. Continued use of the place of residence earlier shared with the former domestic partner is possible also after the termination of the domestic partnership.

  3. A former domestic partner may request that the property relations be settled after the termination of the domestic partnership. 

  ---

  [1] Domestic partnerships were first surveyed in Hungary in the 1970 census: the number of such relationships, which was 62 thousand in 1970, doubled by 1990, and increased by nearly four and half times by 2001. As a result of these developments, 74% of the 2,869,000 families counted were based on a married couple. Ten years before this proportion was still 80%, while three decades ago it was as high as 88%. (Népszámlálás [Census], Vol. 2001, no. 19. “Family types, family forms”, KSH, p. 17).

• A dohányreklámok szabályozásának változásai a magyar jogban

  Pribula László

  Megtekintések száma:

  70

  Since the change of the regime the economic role of advertisements has changed significantly. Advertising forms a considerable part of economic activities, the cost of which constitute a growing portion of the expenses of a given enterprise. The mass-appearance of advertisements has altered the relationship between consumers and advertisers, it has restructured consumption habits and the importance of advertising in media.

  The most significant modification of the Hungarian Advertising Act occurred by (Act I of 2001), which was in large passed with the consent of the advertising profession. The modification introduced the concept of deceptive advertisements, apparent comparative advertisements and special offers. Comparative advertisements were also regulated in a satisfactory way. However, several legal institutions were introduced as well, which should have been included in competition law. In the last two decades actions against unlawful advertisements were largely based on competition law, which restricts advertising activities violating fair competition in general. Advertising Decree and later the Advertising Act regulated the restriction of advertisements of certain goods and services, or defined the restrictions on certain advertising activities. Due to the modification, the role of Competition Act became less significant, since Advertising Act also contains most prohibitions on advertising activities that were defined in the Competition Act. In addition, in the case of violation of regulations on deceptive and comparative advertisements, Advertising Act denoted the Bureau of Competition and the court as chief acting powers, whereas the violation of rules on apparent comparative advertisements falls in the scope of the Consumer Protection Authority.

  What is more, the (Act I of 2001) “smuggled” the entire prohibition of tobacco advertisements into the Advertising Act, which totally contradicted with the opinion of advertising profession. Thus Hungary, similarly to France, joined the strictest practice in this question. It is also disputable whether such restrictions promote the fight against smoking, and it was certainly disadvantageous that legislation decided in the question without involving the profession, for which there had been no precedents so far.

• MINTHA-követés - Globalizációs problémák az önkormányzati fejlődés példáján

  Horváth M. Tamás

  Megtekintések száma:

  55

  In Hungary almost every reform has its reference to the integration in the west, especially European Union. The explanation for failures is the difficulties of adjustment. The dilemma is what kind of reasons result this problem: is it a national feature or the original distress of Hungary. We can say that the root of it is the problem of following patterns. The origin of these patterns are from the western world but these patterns needed years or sometimes ages to reach the present situation. It was an organic development.

  In our modern world we can find plenty of legislative elements of globalization, unifying and harmonizing rules and institutions. Most of the international economic organizations make every effort to harmonize economic institutions, but the example of European Union shows that borders are not as simple as it seems. This harmonization and unification has to surpass it to a wider perspective (e.g. administration, public education, telecommunication or private law institutions, etc.).

  In the study I examine the development of self-governing and local governments. In Hungary over the last years – since the birth of self-governing – many changes could be found. Reforms followed reforms. According to a survey the most important fields of reforms are the following:

  • decentralization
  • privatization
  • decreasing the role of public sector
  • reform of the law for public servants
  • information technology
  • financial and budgetary management.

  Reforms of local governments are part of the globalization especially in those countries where change of the regime has happened. To reach the desired western pattern some lemmas are necessary:

  • constitutional state
  • territorialism of state
  • guaranteed financial sources
  • stability from the perspective of economy and policy.

  These foundational criterions are spread by international organizations like NAFTA, GATT, WTO, IMF, WB, OECD or EU itself. Plenty of recommendations exist on this field for administration and local governments. The Council of Europe has a basic document, the Charta of European Local Governments.

  If we examine the problem closer we can see that in spite of every recommendation or regulation, local governments are in trouble for example in Hungary. There are exact rules or principles to ensure the liberty or free space for them, but financial problems always exist.

  In the essay I analyzes the way of following patterns in typical countries and try to show how hard is to introduce a pattern from a moment to another that has prestigious past.

• A tudományos élet szabadsága a Magyar Köztársaság Alkotmánybíróságának gyakorlatában

  Láncos Petra Lea

  Megtekintések száma:

  61

  A tudományos élet területének fontosságát jelzi, hogy már alaptörvényünk eredeti, 1949-es szövegváltozata is szabályozta azt – igaz, sokkal inkább a tudományos élet állami irányításának, mint a szabad tudományos tevékenységhez való jog garanciájának benyomását keltve. Ma az alapjog jelentőségét elsősorban két szempontból, így a tudományos kutatáshoz való jog mint a tudományszabadság aktív oldaláról, valamint a felsőoktatási intézmények autonómiája mint a tudományszabadság garanciájának passzív oldaláról ragadhatjuk meg. A kutatás szabadságának központi szerepét az Alkotmánybíróság nem csupán a múlt feltárásában, így a társadalom történetének tudományos feldolgozásában, de innovációs értéke folytán a jövő építésében, a társadalom szellemi és gazdasági fejlődésének előmozdításában látja. Ugyanakkor az is nyilvánvaló, hogy a tudományos kutatás, képzés és együttműködés szabadsága, alkotmányellenes korlátozásoktól való mentessége nem garantálható a tudományszabadság másik pillére, a felsőoktatási intézmények és egyéb tudományos központok autonómiájának alkotmányos garanciája híján. A tudományos élet szabadságához fűződő alapjog mind szövegmódosulásait, mind tartalmát tekintve nagy utat tett meg a szocializmus időszakát jellemző ideológiai célhoz kötöttségtől a jogállami átmenetet követő, tudományos kérdéseket érintő állami semlegességéig. Ezt az utat kívánja röviden dokumentálni, valamint a felsőoktatási intézmények autonómiáját érintő két legutóbbi alkotmánybírósági határozat példáján szemléltetni a jelen írás.

• A kutató jogai és kötelezettségei a felsőoktatási találmányok viszonyában a magyar és német (berlini és bajor) jog tükrében

  105-134

  Stipkovits Tamás István

  Megtekintések száma:

  73

  Az akadémiai kapitalizmus megjelenésével a felsőoktatási intézmények társadalmi rendeltetése, feladatai és belső felépítése is változásokon ment keresztül. Az USÁ-ban bekövetkezett reformok hatására több európai országban is megjelent az az elvárás, hogy a felsőoktatási intézmények az oktatási és kutatási funkcióik betöltése mellett gazdasági értelemben is vállaljanak szerepet, ami elsősorban a felsőoktatási intézmény keretei között létrejött innováció hasznosításában ölt testet. A felsőoktatási találmányok viszonyában kiemelt jelentősége van annak, hogy milyen jogosultságok és kötelezettségek illessék meg a kutatót a minél hatékonyabb hasznosítás érdekében. Jelen tanulmány a felsőoktatási intézmény kutatójának jogait és kötelezettségeit hivatott bemutatni. A felsőoktatási intézmények speciális helyzetének és feladatainak számba vételét követően, a tanulmány rátér az akadémiai szabadság egyéni aspektusainak feltárására és kifejti, hogy a munkaviszonyban előállított szabadalmaztatható találmányok terén milyen speciális – az általános szabályoktól eltérő – jellegű jogok és kötelezettségek illetik meg a kutatót. A tanulmány a magyar és német jog összehasonlítására, így a releváns joganyag számba vételére vállalkozik. Tekintettel a német szövetségi rendszerre, a tagállami szabályozás terén a berlini és bajor tagállami jogot veszi irányadónak. A tanulmány következtetéseket von le azzal kapcsolatban, hogy a hazai jog milyen adalékok segítségével motiválhatná a kutató szempontjából a tudástranszfer hatékonyságát, ezáltal növelve az akadémiai keretek között született eredmények kipörgetésének intenzitását.

• A foglalkoztatáspolitikai eszközök szabályozásának változása napjainkban

  Rab Henriett

  Megtekintések száma:

  52

  The aim of the present essay is to give an overview of the means of the employment policy through the analysis and construction of the relevant statutory intruments and legal rules.

  During the treatment of the means of the employment policy this essay tooks the classification accepted by the scientific literature as a basis therefore it deals with these instruments divided into two big groups.

  Among the active types of the means of the employment policy the direct and also the indirect kinds of benefits of the jobless and unemployed are treated here.

  Among the passive types of means those instruments are presented which are to succeed the unemployment benefit and the unemployment allowance such as jobsearch benefit and jobsearch allowance.

  The definition of ‘employment policy’ is widely construed that is why this definition comprises the classical instruments of Labour Law and in a separate subsection the subsidy of the atypical legal relations of employment are also presented.

• A közérdekű munka speciális jellegének főbb vonásai

  Mónusné Kiss Katalin

  Megtekintések száma:

  72

  In Hungary there are two types of punishments: principal punishments and supplementary punishments. I examined the labour in the public interest, which is one of the principal punishments. Judges use this punishment barely than imprisonment, fine. Difficult to use this punishment, because it needs many preliminary works. I examined the labour in the public interest’s ruling from the 1950.:II. Criminal Code of General Part to nowadays.
  

  In Hungary a person sentenced to labor in the public interest is obligated to perform the work defined for him in the court sentence. Only such work may be ordered as work in the public interest which the convict, in light of his health condition and education, is presumed to be capable of performing. There are many problems in rule of the labour in the public interest, for example one day of work in the public. As rule of the Criminal Code punishment shall be six hours of work, but other rule is, punishment shall be 4-8 hours of work for one day.
  

  Other interesting rule is, the imprisonment substituting labour in the public interest or the remaining part thereof shall be established in such a way that one day of labour in the public interest shall correspond to one day of imprisonment. In my opinion it would be better, if the imprisonment substituting labour in the public interest or the remaining part thereof shall be established in fine.
  

  On the other hand I suggested to use this punishment if a person younger than 18 years old. I think if a person is 16 years old, this punishment can be more effective than other punishments.
  

  I found many differences, and many similarities between Hungarian and international Criminal Codes, Propositions, and finally I wrote some important, new point to change the rules.

• Társadalmi szervezetek, alapítványok a közhasznúság tükrében

  15-30

  Héthy Eszter

  Megtekintések száma:

  134

  The Constitution of the Republic of Hungary declares that under the right of association everyone has the right to found organisations – for purposes not prohibited by law – respectively join to them.

  More and more citizens and legal entities have utilized the possibilities guaranteed by the constitution since the regime change thus, the number of the associations and trusts has been increasing annually.

  The purpose of this essay is to present the past, the present and the possible future of trusts and non-govermental organizations with a special focusing on the condition of registration of the public benefit of organisations (PBO), and the rules of the management, operation, economic advantages and supervisions of these PBOs.

• Az (orvos)szakértői bizonyítás a büntetőeljárásban

  95-113

  Szilvássy Zoltán

  Megtekintések száma:

  95

  A Be. a szakértői bizonyítás szabályait jelentős mértékben átalakította, így pl. az eljárások elhúzódása megakadályozása érdekében a szakértők kirendelésének és a szakvélemények értékelésének folyamatát a megfontolt és időszerű döntés érdekében észszerű mederbe igyekszik terelni. A törvény hatálybalépése óta eltelt idő már lehetővé teszi, hogy vizsgáljuk a jogalkalmazói gyakorlatot. Úgy vélem, hogy a legnagyobb változtatás a magánszakértői vélemény szabályozásából adódik, ami lehetővé teszi azt, hogy a terhelt illetve védője hasonló, a fegyverek egyenlőségének alapelvéből is következő jogosítványokkal rendelkezzen a büntetőeljárásban. Mindez pedig általánosságban is az eljárás tisztességességét erősíti, ami pedig garanciája lehet az anyagi igazsághoz is közelítő bírói ítéletek születésének.

• A sérelemdíj funkció-analízise

  97-117.

  Mátyus András

  Megtekintések száma:

  237

  A 2013. évi V. törvény (Ptk.) – felválta a korábbi, elméleti és gyakorlati ellentmondásoktól terhes nem vagyoni kártérítés jogintézményét – a személyiségi jogok megsértésének önálló szankciójaként vezeti be a sérelemdíjat, mely kettős funkcióval bír: egyrészt célja az, hogy akit személyiségi jogában megsértenek, olyan pénzbeli juttatásban részesüljön, amely az elszenvedett nem vagyoni sérelmeket hozzávetőlegesen kiegyensúlyozza, kompenzálja. Másrészt magánjogi büntetésnek is tekinthető a hasonló jogsértések megelőzése érdekében, preventív jelleggel.

  A cél szerinti értelmezés szerint a sérelemdíj csak akkor kerülhet alkalmazásra, ha az képes betölteni a funkcióját, vagyis ha nem mutatható ki olyan nem vagyoni sérelem, amely arányos jóvátételére (elsődlegesen) hivatott lenne a sérelemdíj, akkor egyáltalán nincs helye megítélésének, hiszen a személyiséget érintetlenül hagyó jogsértések esetében kizárólag a büntető funkció érvényesülne, ami teljesen összeegyeztethetetlen a magánjog eredendően helyreállító, kiigazító jellegével.

  A jogirodalom egyöntetű véleménye szerint az elsőbbség a kompenzációs funkcióé kell, hogy legyen és csak másodlagos helyet foglalhat el a magánjogi büntetés jelleg. Munkám alapján elmondható, hogy sérelemdíjra a bírák is elsősorban az elszenvedett immateriális sérelmeket orvosló, az elveszett életörömök pótlására szolgáló jogintézményként tekintenek és azt kizárólag preventív céllal nem ítélik meg, hanem az esetek döntő részében a prevenciós funkció a marasztalás összegét emelő tényezőként kerül értékelésre.

  Tanulmányomban több szempontból kívánom elemezni, hogy a sérelemdíj kettős funkcióját a bíróságok hogyan értékelik az előttük fekvő ügyekben, melyik jelleg domborodik ki az összegszerűség és melyik a jogalap kapcsán. Lévén a kutatás alapvetően empirikus jellegű, ezért minél több ítélet feldolgozásán keresztül vizsgálom, hogy, milyen szempontokat értékel a judikatúra a kompenzációs (pl.: elszenvedett testi sérülések, lelki változások, életkor, a sértett családi élete, életvitel megváltozása stb…) és milyen szempontokat a prevenciós funkció (pl.: jogsértés súlya, elhúzódó jellege stb…) keretében. Végül meg kívánom válaszolni dolgozatom központi kérdését, vagyis: milyen funkciót tulajdonít a gyakorlat a sérelemdíjnak.

• Kellő védelmet biztosít-e az Ebktv. a munkaerőpiacon a gyermekvállaláshoz? Várandós nők és szülők foglalkoztatási egyenlősége Magyarországon

  47-60.

  Földvári Zoltán

  Megtekintések száma:

  267

  Az elmúlt években számos állami intézkedés célozta a születésszám nevelését Magyarországon, elsősorban a szülők közvetlen pénzügyi támogatása révén. A gyermeknevelés iránti kötelezettségvállalás azonban nem csak anyagi kérdés, a munka és a magánélet egyensúlya ugyanolyan fontos a szülők, és különösen a nők számára. Célom alapvetően az egyenlő bánásmód joganyagának vizsgálata abból a szempontból, hogy várandós nők és a kisgyermekes szülők megkülönböztetését a foglalkoztatás során mennyiben tudja megakadályozni és szankcionálni. Egy rövid problémafelvetést követően bemutatom a téma uniós jogi fejlődését és hazai jogszabályi hátterét, különös tekintettel az eljárási kérdésekre, majd pedig az Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság esetjogán keresztül kívánom elemezni az egyes, egyenlő bánásmód követelményét sértő magatartások megjelenését a gyermekvállalással összefüggésben. Arra a problémára keresem a választ, hogy egyrészt megvannak-e azok a jogszabályi keretek, amelyek ahhoz szükségesek, hogy a gyermekvállalást tervező nők és családok ne legyenek kiszolgáltatottak a munkáltatóknak, másrészt mennyiben érvényesülnek ezek a keretek a gyakorlatban, harmadrészt pedig található-e valamilyen fejlesztendő terület az egyenlő bánásmód szabályozásának terén.

• Őslakos népek Európában? - Az európai emberi jogvédelmi mechanizmus őslakos népekkel kapcsolatos joggyakorlatának aktuális kérdései

  32-44

  Marinkás György

  Megtekintések száma:

  74

  The aim of the current study is to examine the jurisprudence of the European Human Rights Mechanism (hereafter: EHRM), focusing on the three most common issues that indigenous peoples living on the European Continent has to face. First, the modern economic activities, which affect their traditional livelihoods. Second, the difficulties of proving their land claims due to the unwritten nature of their culture. Finally, the threat of relocation, which causes severe problems considering their close links to the traditionally occupied lands. Regarding the first issue the author examines how the EHRM developed its jurisprudence from the initial negative attitude of the European Commission on Human Rights (hereafter: ECHR) – which ceased to exist in 1998 – to the more receptive attitude of the European Court of Human Right (hereafter: ECtHR). The main question regarding the second issue is the ability of the EHRM to accept the laws and traditions of a significantly different society as equal. Until the recent times, the ECtHR – and former ECHR – only accepted written proof as authentic. Last, but not least the author introduces three cases in which indigenous peoples had been removed from their ancient lands,  and have not been allowed to return ever since. Considering their close relation with their lands – which serves as basis of cultural identity for them – the result is devastating.

  Having regard to the above mentioned jurisprudence, three questions arise. First, has the jurisprudence of the EHRM evolved over the years; second – which forecasts the answer for the first question – why does granting effective protection for indigenous peoples still cause problems to the ECtHR? Third, are there any signs of change in the jurisdiction? The answer is complex: the jurisprudence of the ECtHR is definitely evolved; however it still does not reach the level of protection offered by the Inter-American System, which acts as a pioneer on the field of protecting indigenous rights, closely followed by the African System. The attitude of the EHRM is mainly attributable to historical and social reasons creating serious obstacles for the ECtHR. Considering the example of the Inter-American and the African Systems the main question is whether the judges of the ECtHR and the policy makers have the determination to exceed these barriers.

• A jogszerű adatkezelés a GDPR rendelet után

  Stricz Walter Roland

  Megtekintések száma:

  316

  Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation), became effective on 25 May 2018. With the regulatory form the legislator raised the regulation of the right to the protection of personal data within the European Union to a higher level. The legislative act has a fundamental impact on the legal systems of the member states showing various differences from each other. Further, it can be stated as a general experience that the right to the protection of personal data and the nature of such right are less known either to those affected or to the data controllers. The new legislative act and the penalties with increased amounts [Article 84 of the GDPR] demand the elaboration of a study understandable for laics, too. Finally, as a result of the General Data Protection Regulation, the institution system ensuring the protection of personal data has fundamentally changed, so, therefore, it is also necessary to examine the authorities of the member states and the Union, as well.

  The study primarily approaches the occurring problems from the practice side. Accordingly, the examination conducted by the Commission nationale de l’informatique et des libertés (CNIL) against Google is described, as the first significant penalty imposed based on the General Data Protection Regulation.

  The first part of the study is intended to present the right to the general protection of personal data. The historical part addresses in details the major elements of the historical development of data protection and the development of its contents, with particular regard to the appearance of the right to information self-determination based on the so-called “census-judgement” of 1983 of the BVerfG (Federal Constitutional Court of Germany). Finally, this part touches upon the theories defined in connection with the historical generations of the right to the protection of personal data. After the historical part the study addresses the peculiarities of the right to the protection of personal data, paying particular attention to separation from the neighbouring legal areas.

  The second part is intended to present the prevalence of the right to information self-determination according to the GDPR. It is the institution system protecting personal data that has undergone the most significant change. The Work Group under Article 29 has been replaced by the Data Protection Agency set up based on the GDPR. Setting up the Agency, enlarging its scope of authority and its stronger independence from the executive powers of the Union can, by all means, be evaluated positively. As regards the security of personal data, the practice, major directives and opinions of the Work Group under Article 29 have been examined. It is a significant step forward that the GDPR has made the sphere of special personal data more specific, promoting by this the increase of the extent of protection. It is important that, as a general rule, the Regulation forbids controlling special personal data. The definition of the concept of personal data is an essential condition for understanding the regulation. In addition to the principles of controlling personal data, the legal fundaments of data control have particular significance, with special regard to the consent and the data control necessary for performing the contract. In my view, the consent is a legal fundament of auxiliary nature for data control, which is also supported by the opinions of the Work Group, too. Granting the consent and the individual excluding circumstances occurring in connection with this, were examined on a case-by-case basis. In my opinion, the automated decision making process and the regulation of profile creation are one of the most cardinal issues of the GDPR. The way in which profiles are created, their use and the permissibility of such use are discussed in details. In my view, the regulation of the GDPR is deficient as regards the automated decision making process and the profile creation. The decision making necessary for performing the contract is not separated sharply enough, and it is not necessary for this. In my opinion, in respect of this latter sphere of cases the GDPR is not strict enough and may easily serve as a basis for misuse on the part of data controllers. In my view, granting the consent should be made stricter in respect of creating profiles and the introduction of the (contradictable) legal presumption of refusal would also be desirous.