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Estabilishing Plant Production Systems by Optimising the Crop Structure
82-84Views:145In our days, ecologiacal and economic models of agricultural application are of ever increasing significance. These provide an opportunity for more accurate planning, and thus can favourably influence the efficiency and the economic situation of the given enterprise. The relevant literature divides models according to various criteria. The most common is the division between optimising and non-optimising models. Non-olptimising models generally endeavour to make the best use of technological lines, of machine capacity, while optimising models are used to optimise revenues returns from sales; or occasionally, production costs. In our case revenue and returns from sales were optimised. The models examined consists of several modules. These are the following: plant cultivation modules, evaluations (assessment of situation, conception plan, complex corporate evaluation), supplementary sheets (sheets and charts for ancillary plant production, general costs of operation, summary and crops structure optimisation). With the help of the model annual plans of plant cultivation can be made an optimal crop structure may be planned with the resources of the enterprise taken into consideration, and thereby it becomes possible to define the largest net revenue on a corporate level.
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Influence of H-FABP gene polymorphisms on slaughter value of hybrid pigs
55-60Views:604The H-FABP gene was defined as a potential candidate gene influencing the fat deposition traits, primarily the intramuscular fat content. The aim of this study is to define whether the previously reported gene mutations are connected with the slaughter traits measured in a standard slaughterhouse. The study included data from 405 gilts and barrows from 2 different samples. The two chosen mutation (HFABP1: c. 103 T>C, HFABP2: c. 1970 T>C) were detected in one reaction with PCR-RFLP (Polymerase Chain Reaction-Restriction Fragment Lenght Polymorphism) method with HinfI restrictoin enzyme. The allel frequencies are as follows: 103T(H)=0.75; 103C(h)=0.25, 1970T=0.32; 1970C=0.68. A HFABP1 mutation has significant effect on backfat thickness and lean meat % at stable 1 (sample 1), but there were no effect at stable 2 (sample 2). The analysis of values of production traits, depending on HFABP2 genotype did not reveal significant differences. Based on this study we can’t get a clear conclusion on the impact of polymorphisms on production parameters. In the examined flock the allele frequency of mutation in 5 'UTR is identical to the literature data, i. e. the more favorable variant regarding the intramuscular fat content is predominant in the population.
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Mitigation of environment impact of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species
159-164Views:500The Fusarium fungi hazards the grain quality of cereals, therefore significantly affects their utilization as animal feed or consumable product. The Fusarium can decrease the quality of wheat in different ways: decreases the germination capability, causes visible discoloration, mould may appear, reduces the dry material and nutrient content of the grain, causes mycotoxin infection – as a result given by its by-product. Micotoxins produced by Fusarium genus, as the trichotecenes (T-2, HT-2, deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, diacetoxyscirpenol, Fusarenone-X) and the zearalenone (F-2) are the most common in Hungary. Occurrence of fumonisins first discovered in 1988 are must be identified carefully. About 20–30% of the overall worldwide production of cereals is infected with Fusarium and its toxins, which situation is similar in Hungary. This infection causes serious yield-losses in cereal production. In the case of cereal products, which non-utilizable as forage seems, an optimal solution is utilizing as biogas raw material, but it is also important to examine the effect of the infected cereal on the anaerobe digestion process.
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Heat treatment and microbial digestion of poulty feather for biogas production
215-219Views:424The aim of this research was the elaboration of the technological parameters of heat pre-treatment and microbial digestion of poultry feathers for biogas production. Feathers were treated at 70, 100, 140 °C, and subsequently digested by Bacillus licheniformis, or keratin disintegrator bacteria. Investigations focused on the optimalization of parameters influencing poultry feather biodegradation. The optimal range of pH, temperature,
feather size and bacillus:feather ratio were determined in the experiments, as well as the analysis of relationship between the examined parameters. In order to be able to track the dynamics of the biodegradation, we determined the extinction level of the liquid phase of the biodegraded material in the different experimental treatments. The results showed that the rate of hydrolysis was significantly higher in the treatments with bacteria than in the treatments without it. Regarding the pretreatments at 70, 100 and 140 °C, the digestion of feather was the most intensive at 70 °C. The most extensive digestion was observed in case of 1:3 feather:water ratio. The highest intensity of feather digestion was
detected in the treatment with 1% microbe ratio. -
Comparative analysis of maize hybrides grown for bioethanol production purposes
11-14Views:202The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of crop year on the main components of maize grown for bio-ethanol production yield, starch content and starch yield per hectare of maize hybrids were investigated in a droughty (2007) and in a favourable years with optimal weather conditions (2008, 2009). We measured very low starch yield (1.5 t ha-1) in the year with unfavourable precipitation supply (2007) together with higher starch content (73%). In the case of good precipitation supply we measured a much higher starch yield per hectare (7.7 t ha-1) with lower content (72.4%). In 2009 the starch content (74.5%) exceed the results of the two previous years, but on the other hand the average of starch yield was (4.9 t ha-1) which falls between the other two years values.
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Challenges and agroecological approaches in crop production
75-89Views:295Never has the need been greater for an ecosystem approach to agriculture. As our global population exceeds 9 billion in the next 30 years, with a concomitant demand for agricultural products, ever more pressure will be placed on our agricultural systems. Meanwhile, climate change is altering the ecological settings in which agriculture is practiced, demanding adaptation. Knowledge generated by long-term research will help to address one of the grand challenges of our time: how to meet sustainably the growing world demand for agricultural products – in a way that minimizes environmental harm and enhances the delivery of a diverse array of ecosystem services.
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Local strategical tasks in the Hungarian fruit production with respect to the global economic and climatic changes
39-34Views:340After identifying the problems, we have determined the local tasks which Hungarian fruit growing has to accomplish to remain competitive despite global market pressures and global climate change.
Fruit growing in the Great Plain is of determining importance in Hungary as 75% of fruit originates from the Great Plain. Therefore, the maintenance of the competitiveness of fruit growing on the Great Plain is an important economic interest which is a difficult task to resolve, because the global economic pressure against local resources and climate change affect the fruit growers sensitively.
In Hungarian fruit production, it is necessary to select/develop with great care the appropriate location, training system and methods of emergency technology which have to be harmonised. -
The examination of relation between the C/N ratio and the biogas yields in the Regional Biogas Plant of Nyírbátor
63-68Views:278The Regional Biogas Plant of Nyírbátor was built by the Bátortrade Ltd. The biogas plant contains 6 mezophil and 6 thermophil fermentation tanks, because the biogas production is based on mixed compositions. The regional plant is a multifunctional system. It produces agricultural products and biogas with high methane content. The utilization of biogas is also accomplished here; gas-engines transform it to electricity and
heat-energy. The product electricity is used by the local plants, the surplus is sold.
The aim of the research is the examination of the quality and quantity of the input materials that put into the mixers and follow the seasonal, periodical and optional changes of the input materials. The analyzation of the quality and quantity data can give an answer to the optional changes of biogas production because the input materials determine the composition of the examined recipe. The C/N ratio was between 11-13, the maximal value of the biogas yield was observed by 12.35 C/N ratio. -
Rippl-Rónai’s color in the native parks: production and using of new, synthetic Wild sage color-mixture
59-64Views:362The climate changes is becoming more damaging to ornamental plants. Besides ornamental species and varieties of plants on public spaces. It will be necessary to use domestic, well adaptable climate-tolerant plant species.
One field of our growing ornamental plants researches from 2001 in the Centre of Agricultural Sciences of University of Debrecen, is studying drought patient, mainly Hungarian improved annual varieties, which are able to get acclimatized with the landscape. Moreover, we have in view to work out new, economical seedling production technologies. In the program, the excellent drought- and frost tolerant annuals and perennials belongs to the climate change tolerant plants. From the evaluated of species we want to create and spread the application. of the new types of ornamental horticulture culture.
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Examination of the conditions of extreme water balance circumstances (water logging, drought) with environmental information technology tools
79-86Views:532The Carpathian Basin is characterized by varying hydrological extremes, both in space and time. Hungary's natural endowments are more favourable than average, especially for agricultural production, with 5,3 million hectares of land we have which is suitable for agricultural production. These extreme water management are often occur in the same year and mostly in the same region, which may become more frequent in the future, especially in the lowland regions. The negative impacts of extreme water management was influenced by the land use changes in recent years, which has modified the runoff processes of the affected regions.
The aim of the study was to research the formation of inland water and drought circumstances in two sample areas the Great Plain (Szolnok-Túri flat and Nyírség) by geoinformatic tools. During the investigation in the first step we determined that areas which are susceptible to inland water and drought, based on the AGROTOPO database. In addition, land-use categories of characteristics of the sample areas are evaluated according to the Corine Land Cover. Furthermore, after defining characteristic of NDVI values between the period of 2003–2013, we evaluated the effect of drought whether can be detected in crop failures in respective areas.
Based on our results, we concluded that the formation of inland water and drought circumstances can be investigated in a large spatial extension by geoinformatic tools and databases.
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Effects of cultivation practices and hybrid selection on endofusariosis and mycotoxin contamination in maize
69-78Views:460The aim of this study was to determine the levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin mycotoxins in tillage and no-till systems in 2020 and 2021. Additionally, we sought to establish the levels of internal Fusarium infection in different tillage systems. We examined four tillage systems for two years (conventional tillage (plowing), conservation tillage, reduced tillage, and strip-till). The results indicate that toxin levels varied between the two years, with fumonisin production dominant in 2021, while DON toxin production was dominant in 2020. Regarding internal Fusarium infection, the lowest levels were observed in the plowing system in 2020, whereas in 2021, the lowest levels were measured in the reduced tillage system. Like the low DON levels in 2020, the plowing-based tillage system resulted in the lowest fumonisin levels in 2021. Throughout our experiment, the toxin levels were below the permissible limits for unprocessed corn, with DON levels under 1750 μg kg-1 and combined fumonisin B1 and B2 levels under 4000 μg kg-1. However, in areas where toxin contamination is typically problematic, considering the beneficial impact of plowing on reducing toxin contamination might be advisable when planning tillage.
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Effects of diets with different fibre content on the performance of rabbit does and on parasitological infection
41-44Views:299The effect of two diets with different fibre contents was examined on rabbit does’ performance and parasitological infection. Diet P2 had 1% higher crude fibre, ADF and starch contents than that of diet P1. The performance of 12–12 does and litters per group were examined during two consecutive inseminations. In both dietary groups, according to a 49-day reproduction rhythm, the does were artificially inseminated 18 days after kindling. Most production traits were not affected by the diets (kindling rate, weight of does and their kits, feed intake, mortality; P>0.05). Significant differences were only found in litter sizes as the number of kits was lower in P1 diet fed group at all examined days of lactation. The significant “Diet x Reproduction cycle” interaction showed that the litter sizes of dietary groups did not differ at the first examined insemination, however at the subsequent reproduction cycle 6–8% lower litter sizes were counted in P1 fed does compared to group P2 (litter size at 4 day: 9.00 vs 9.58–9.92, P = 0.004; litter size at 11 day: 8.83 vs 9.58–9.92, P = 0.037 for diet P1 at the 2nd reproductive cycle compared to all the other cases, respectively). The two diets with different compositions did not affect most of the production results of the rabbit does and their kits, but the lower litter size of does consuming P1 diet at the second examined lactation suggests the adverse effect of P1 diet’s long-term use. From the collected manure samples not any parasites were detected which presents a very favourable picture of farm from the point of view of hygiene and animal health.
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Changing of some parameters of the soil-plant system as an effect of different composts
262-266Views:400Composting is an alternative way for practicing site-specific and environmental friendly plant nutrient supply. Our aim was to study the effect of different composts on plant and soil system.
Pot experiment with acidic sandy soil blended with three composts in five (0%, 5%, 10%, 25% and 50%) proportion was set up. Our experimental plant was perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). After the harvest of ryegrass we measured the fresh and dry weight of harvested plants, the P-, K-, Mg-contents, and the pH of soils.
The three composts had different effect on dry weight production and on nutrient-supply of soil. We established that one of the compost had significantly larger effect on the dry weight of ryegrass compared to the others. In this study we proved that favourable compost/soil proportion is different in the case of different composts. -
Comparative study of different soybean genotypes in irrigation technology
91-95Views:759In many places in Hungary, early maturity soybean can be successfully grown. The earlier maturity group of soy which ripened in 110–125 days in most crop areas in Hungary. However, to achieve excellent results, the selection of proper varieties is important too. Successful cultivation is largely dependent on the macro and microclimate of the production area, the nutrient supply of the soil and the cultivation technology. Soybean can be produced in places where the amount of precipitation is right, as the lack of water results in lower yields and deteriorated oil and protein concentrations. In the following study, 2 years (2016 and 2017) are compared to the yield, protein and oil content of the soybeans of the early maturation group in irrigated and non-irrigated treatments. Based on our experiment, it can be stated that, during the irrigation of soybean, oil and protein content and yields did not always change.
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Production technology development of millet at different ecological conditions
63-67Views:412The millet is a very special plant with good adaptation that gives the possibility for the late sowing and secondary production. However the effects of late sowing modifies the efficiency of the agrotechnological elements. The exainations – focused on this aspect – was conducted in the DU RINY and DU RIK in small plots in four replications in 2014. Among the examined factors (sowing time, nutrient supply, growing area) sowing time had the largest effect. The effectiveness of the agrotechnological elements decreases under unfavourable circumstances caused by the late sowing.
The agrotechnical elements modifies the yields in the examined genotype. Sowing time had the biggest effect on the yields of millet. The genotype „Maxi” had the highest yield in the different treatment variations.
The yield differences were significant between the sowing time and plant density variations, but the nutrient supply had not significant effect (the rate of precipitation was unfavourable in 2014 season).
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Single nucleotide polymorphism analysis in meat-production related genes in broiler chickens
79-82Views:304In broiler chickens, the intensive selection for growth rate, feed efficiency, body composition (breast muscle weight) traits in the last decades was successful. To improve economically important characteristics, it is possible to use molecular markers associated with meat production traits. The aim of this study was to examine genotype polymorphisms in ROSS 308 broilers for thyroid hormone responsive Spot14α, insulinlike growth factor 1 (IGF1), IGF-binding protein 2 (IGFBP2), somatostatin (SST) and prolactin (PRL) genes. A further goal of this investigation was to study the relationship between the polymorphisms and phenotypic characteristics.
In the investigated broiler population, the frequency for CC homozygous genotype was 0.77 in Spot14α (AY568628), AA homozygous genotype was 0.80 in IGF1 (M74176), GG homozygous genotype was 0.85 in IGFBP2 (U15086), DD homozygous genotype was 0.60 in PRL (FJ663023 or FJ434669). Only the AA homozygous genotype was found in SST (X60191). Chickens with AC genotype in Spot14α, and with GG genotype in IGFBP2 had higher body weight (BW) and carcass weight (CW), compared to CC and GT genotypes. However, the differences were not significant (P>0.05). There was significant association (P<0.05) between PRL genotypes and body and carcass weight, where chicken with homozygous DD surpassed individuals with homozygous II genotypes.
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Self Pollination and Fruit Quality-Comparative Research of Sweet Cherry Cultivars
295-299Views:273In fruit production – among stone fruits – sweet cherry is considered to have great promise, but species of sweet cherry need improvement. Cherry plantations are advanced in years, therefore putting into operation high productivity plantations is an important field of research. Through clonal selection and cross-breeding, several new cherry species were created in the recent past in Hungary. Spread of these species is also important. In our factorial cherry production, we use high trunk trees and trees with large crowns. Intensive plantations are very few in number.
Our goal is to study the morphological and physiological properties of new sweet cherry cultivars. The most important aim is to combine the productive area of foliage and the fruit quality. The present study shows the self pollination, fruit setting and fruit quality parameters. -
The effect of plant density to the yield results and the yield components of maize hybrids
89-93Views:280Maize is the crop that is produced on the second largest area in our country, in Hungary. It is planted on nearly 25% of the country’s growing area and it was produced on 1 090 439 hectares in 2016. Despite the continuous development of the biological basis and production
technology, the growth of the yield results is not constant, its fluctuation is significant. It can be even up to 60%, because of the extremity of the years. The exploitation of the yield potential of modern hybrids is possible if we harmonize the effects of the ecological factors and properly applied instruments of agro technology and by these we ensure their interaction to reach a favorable outcome. The applied plant density is an important, well researched, but at industrial level a not enough utilized element of the maize production.
The results of the extensive tests, done between 2009 and 2015, showed that the genotype, the year effect and the plant density are in strong correlation with each other determining the yield results. In the past seven years the examined genotypes reached the highest yield
performance at the highest plant densities. The early hybrids (RM90–95, FAO 200–300) are capable of producing them at higher plant density, while in case of the mid and late maturity varieties the further increasing of the density after reaching the optimum level led to yield depression.
According to our experimental results, the yield is in close positive correlation with the increase of the plant density. The effect of the growing season has great significance in forming the yield results and this determines the applicable plant density too.
The yield of maize is determined by a resultant of components. The main component is the number of ears per plant and the amount of kernels per ear, which is calculated from the number of kernels on an ear and the weight of them. The number of the kernels on an ear is
calculated from the number of rows on the cob multiplied by the number of seeds in one row on the cob. In dry years, at lower yield levels the yield decreases because of the shorter ears, while at the higher levels the number of kernels in a row and the thousand-kernel weight decreases,causing yield depression this way. From our examinations it turned out that the plant density reaction of a genotype is individual, every variety reaches its maximum kernel number per hectare – in other words the maximum yield - in an individual way. -
Investigating the above-ground biomass values of sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas)
35-39Views:393The role of sweet potato tubers in human nutrition is not new. The above-ground biomass of sweet potatoes is not used for nutritional purposes in most countries, but it has a high biological value. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to investigate the production of press fibre from above ground biomass by wet fractionation. Two sweet potato varieties (purple- and white-fleshed sweet potato) and two types of irrigation system were used: bubbling water flow system (BWS) and continuous water flow system (CWS). Glucan, xylan, arabinan were analysed by HPLC and elemental content was measured by ICP-OES. Our results show that the total carbohydrate content in the pressed fibre of the leaf blades (27.64–29.88 %w/w) is lower than in the stem with petiole (51.14–57.36 %w/w). No significant difference in glucan, xylan and arabinan content was observed in the leaf blade. In the stem with petiole, significant differences were observed for xylan and arabinan contents. For elemental content, generally higher values were measured in the leaf blade than in the stem with petiole. This information may be relevant for the selection of the appropriate variety and treatment, even for the production of functional food.
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The effect of agrotechnological factors and the cropping season on sweetcorn (Zea Mays L. convar. saccharata Koern.) production in a humid year
146-151Views:197We have examined the effect of three agrotechnological factors (sowing time, fertilization, crop density) and four genotypes on the yield
of sweetcorn on chernozem soil in the Hajdúság region in 2009. The experiment was set up at the Látókép Research Site of the University of
Debrecen. We have included two sowing times (27 April, 26 May), six nutrition levels (control, N30+PK, N60+PK, N90+PK, N120+PK,
N150+PK) and four genotypes (Jumbo, Enterprise, Prelude, Box-R) at two crop density levels (45 thousand ha-1).
In the humid cropyear of 2010 the amount of precipitation exceeded the 30-year average by 184 mm in the cropping season; the average
temperature exceeded the same by 0.8 C on the average of the examined months. The circumstances were most favourable for sweetcorn
production with the first sowing time, thus, this was when the yield of all hybrids was the highest.
With early sowing time, the highest yield (23437 kg ha-1 yield) was obtained with Enterprise at 45 thousand ha-1 crop density level at
N150 + PK nutrition level. The highest yield of the other three hybrids was 22253 kg ha-1 (Jumbo) 22286 kg ha-1 (Box-R) and 1873 kg ha-1
(Prelude). With the second sowing time, the highest yield was obtained with Enterprise again (22237 kg ha-1) at 65 thousand ha-1 crop
density level. With this sowing time the yield of Jumbo, Box-R and Prelude was 20888 kg ha-1, 17796 kg ha-1 and 17401 kg ha-1, respectively.
We found that the highest yield was obtained at the highest nutrition levels (N120 + PK, N150 +PK) with the first sowing time, while the same
was obtained at lower nutrition levels (N90 + PK, N120 + PK) with the second sowing time. -
Agronomic research in Martonvásár, aimed at promoting the efficiency of field crop production
89-93Views:341The effect of crop production factors on the grain yield was analysed on the basis of three-factorial experiments laid out in a split-split-plot design. In the case of maize the studies were made as part of a long-term experiment set up in 1980 on chernozem soil with forest residues, well supplied with N and very well with PK. The effects of five N levels in the main plots and four sowing dates in the subplots were compared in terms of the performance of four medium early hybrids (FAO 200). In the technological adaptation experiments carried out with durum wheat, the N supplies were moderate (2010) or good (2011), while the P and K supplies were good or very good in both years. Six N top-dressing treatments were applied in the main plots and five plant protection treatments in the subplots to test the responses of three varieties.
The results were evaluated using analysis of variance, while correlations between the variables were detected using regression analysis.
The effect of the tested factors on the grain yield was significant in the three-factorial maize experiment despite the annual fluctuations, reflected in extremely variable environmental means. During the given period the effect of N fertilisation surpassed that of the sowing date and the genotype. Regression analysis on the N responses for various sowing dates showed that maize sown in the middle 10 days of April gave the highest yield, but the N rates required to achieve maximum values declined as sowing was delayed.
In the very wet year, the yield of durum wheat was influenced to the greatest extent by the plant protection treatments, while N supplies and the choice of variety were of approximately the same importance. In the favourable year the yielding ability was determined by topdressing and the importance of plant protection dropped to half, while no significant difference could be detected between the tested varieties. According to the results of regression analysis, the positive effect of plant protection could not be substituted by an increase in the N rate in either year. The achievement of higher yields was only possible by a joint intensification of plant protection and N fertilisation. Nevertheless, the use of more efficient chemicals led to a slightly, though not significantly, higher yield, with a lower N requirement. -
Agricultural biogas plants in Eastern Hungary
79-81Views:269In the scope of the article, agricultural biogas plants which operate within the region have been analysed together with their linked livestock plants. The study attempts to describe the current condition and future opportunities of the sites. It also covers the description of energy production/use efficiency. The study contains the list of factors determining the economic operation of biogas plants. In the course of the analysis, types, amount and quality of energy produced of different raw materials have been determined within the decentralised energy production.
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Results of a Fertilization Experiment Performed with Sulphur on Rape Seed Plants
116-119Views:475The sulphur fertilizing experiment was introduced in the cropping year of 2001/2002, with winter rapeseed. The experiment was performed on a farm in Magyarhomorog, Hajdú-Bihar County. By selecting the location for the experiment, we had to consider the effect of the hard winter that was very unfavourable for rapeseed production, as there was serious frost damage on the sown area previously used for the experiment. In the arable land experiment, results of three different doses of treatment were compared in two replicates, on meadow soil. FitoHorm 32 S solution was used as a sulphur fertilizer, in doses of 3, 6 and 10 l/ha. Evaluating the results, we tried to find a correlation between the amount of fertilizer and the amount of seed-crop or the oil content of the seed. The nitrogen and sulphur contents of the samples were determined using classical methods and an Elementar VarioMax analyser. By this way, it was possible to examine not only the role of Sulphur in rapeseed production, but also to compare and evaluate results obtained by Kjeldahl and the modern, environmentally-friendly combustion method.
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Technological and Technical Issues of Efficient Nutrient Supply
43-46Views:166Efficient plant production requires modern production technologies, including a nutrient supply of a scientific basis. The harmonic nutrient supply of quality products that are required by market demands can be produced by the optimal combination of a compound system of requirements. These requirements are partly preparatory (soil investigations, yield measurements, preparation of digital field maps) and are partly based on the knowledge of the most significant characteristics of the applied nutrients. Most artificial fertilizers are applied by spinning disc fertilizer spreaders all over the world, therefore, it is advisable to use them in Hungary as well. Importantly, these machines should be well adjustable, capable of the exact measurement and control of the spread quantity, as well as of even spreading. My report has investigated only the most significant technical requirements affecting the even application of nutrients.
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Harmonic development and biodiesel
91-95Views:283An increased expansion of renewable resources and biodiesel is observed and prognosed, since fossile energy resources are about to run out. Hungary achieved outstanding sunflower years in the recent years in worldwide comparison. In the future, the feedstock of biodiesel production can also be rape besides sunflower.
According to the concept of harmonious development, the balance between nature, society, economy and human environments is represented by their mutual presumptive character. Research and development need to be aligned into this system. Our aim was to examine the advantages and
disadvantages of biodiesel production in different environments, using a model to do so. In order to maintain the harmony, the existing resources have to be managed properly, taking the correlations of the system into consideration. Targeted technological developments are necessary, similarly to the improvement of energy safety and efficiency.