Keresés
Keresési eredmények
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A versenytilalmi megállapodás
20-28Megtekintések száma:228The “agreement on non-competition” is essentially the extension of the protection of the basic economic interest of the employer. While during the employment relationship several labor law provisions protect the interest of both parties, the “agreement on non-competition” is designed to protect the employer’s interests after the termination of the relationship. This means – in return for financial compensation – the former employee needs to refrain from any kind of business competition against his/her former employer. This necessarily involves financial compensation and may have several restrictions, such business or geographical area or time.
The previous Labor Code did not specify for detailed regulation of the issue and the law remained rather vague. It merely referred to the fact that parties – based on their own free will – may enter into such agreement. However the new Labor Code contains explicit regulations under title XVIII of the Act as “Particular Agreements Related to Employment”.
The “agreement on non-competition” belongs to the field of employment law. Unlike the previous Labor Code that categorized this possible agreement as of purely civil law in nature, the new Labor Code declares it to belong under the scope of the Labor Code. The previous regulation even ordered the provisions of the Civil Code to be applied to such agreements however the new legislation brought a conceptual change.
The currently effective regulation provides for a 2-year limitation on such conduct on the employee’s part that would create competition with the employer. The exact amount of the consideration payable for this obligation remains to be decided by the parties however the Labor Code suggests that it shall be based on how difficult the applied restrictions make it for the employee to find another job with his qualifications and experience. As a basic limit the law provides that the amount shall not be less than one-third of the base wage payable for the same period of time.
The “agreement on non-competition” is not to be confused with similar legal institutions. The paper points out two close similarities in the legal system. One being the employee’s obligation of confidentiality; this prevails after termination of the employment relationship as well without any time or similar restrictions and even without any financial compensation. The other one is the so called “non-compete” agreement from the field of competition law. This is applicable after takeovers where the seller shall refrain from engaging into business in the same area as the buyer.
In the field of labor law the time period for the “agreement on non-competition” is up to the agreement of the parties however the new law invokes an upper limit of two years that is following the termination of the employment relationship. This is a decrease from the previous regulation that provided for a period of three years. The agreement can be modified by the consent of both parties just like the employment contract or civil law agreements.
In case of violation of the agreement three cases are to be analyzed. The first is the case of the employee breaching the provisions of the contract. In this case the employee is liable for damages towards his/her former employer. The provisions of the new Civil Code and those of the Labor Code are to be applied to the damages. In the second case the employer may request an injunction to prohibit the employee from any conduct breaching the agreement while the third case involves the breach of the agreement on the employee’s part for which the rules of the Civil Code and the Labor Code are to be applied as well.
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A társasági jogviszonyok szabályozása a német polgári jogi társaságban
Megtekintések száma:51Partnership under the civil code is a harsh institution in Hungarian legal system. Despite of this fact, most of the European countries apply this legal entity a lot as a background for other, more complicated corporate forms. In my essay I demonstrate those rules in German Civil Code (BGB), which show the importance and opportunities of these partnerships.
If we would like to describe the essentials of partnerships under the Civil Code, the most important question is the legal relations from both inner and external point of view. Internal relations mean an obligation between the parties, who form this partnership. It is natural that we can find both rights and commitments between founders. This is a contract but BGB says that all parties have equal rights and commitments in the same partnership. As a general rule of the Code, it is permissive, not cogent. BGB has basic regulation for operating such a partnership, but can be useful if founders live with this permissive opportunity and shape special rules for their partnership, which fit to their aims, functions, different financial potential of the parties.
There is a chance for founders to neglect building a whole structure and organization for their partnership, if they want to operate it as an inner partnership, without external relations, focusing only for the rights and omissions between the parties.
From all contract that establishes a partnership under the Civil Code membership rights follow. These rights cannot be transferred. A distinction can be made between administrational, common business management and financial rights. Rights to common business management can consist of right to information, right to supervision or the most important right to vote. Financial rights gather typical rights such as right to dividend or liquidity proportion. These rights are social omissions from the viewpoint of the partnership itself, as these are for the interest of the parties.
The most important omissions of the founders are financial contribution to establish the partnership. This regulation results from that partnership is to promote common aim of the founders, and to achieve this, all of them have to make available pecuniary or non-pecuniary assets. According to a special rule of BGB, over against the other corporate forms, members of the partnership have no omission to increase or complete their assets.
Management of the partnership is not only a right but an obligation too. A special omission is that all members and founders have to be loyal to the partnership. Because of the strong partnership character of this corporate form, this means that members have to keep the interest and aim of the partnership in view. They all are responsible for achieving the aim of the partnership and nobody can sit as a beneficiary. Loyal members have to keep secrets in connection with operating the partnership and of course the sudden obligation to inform the others of all events and experiences, which are in tight connection with the partnership and the interests of the parties. If any of the members breach these obligations, rules of damages can be applied in BGB.
Assets of the partnership are special, because no separated corporate assets form. Financial and non-pecuniary contribution becomes the assets of the community of members. It is undividable and common. But these common assets are strictly separated from the private assets of the parties. Rights for profit and deficit are equal, but this permissive rule allows different regulation in the contract. The only cogent sentence is the prohibition of societas leoniana, i.e. nobody can be precluded of profit and deficit.
External relations mean the representation of the partnership. In this case the most important law is the contract itself. In case of disagreement between the parties, there is a helping rule of BGB: members can act as a body. If we take into consideration the rules of liability, we can say that because of the lack of legal capacity of the partnership, individual liability has its important role. Generally this liability is unlimited, but there is a chance to agree with the creditor to limit liability. But this limitation is only valid for that legal transaction.
Rules for partnerships under the Civil Code in Germany are more detailed and nuanced than in Hungary. Partnership is the basic type of civil law partnerships, such as limited partnership or general partnership. We have to consider that building up a more coherent regulation for these partnerships can be useful to categorize atypical corporations.
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A személyiségi jogok védelme a reklámtörvény tükrében
Megtekintések száma:98There is a significant inconsistency within the domain of enforcement of inherent rights in the Hungarian regulation. The protection of the inherent rights is based on the section 75 of Act IV of 1959 (hereinafter: „Civil Code”), which provides that inherent rights shall be observed by everyone and inherent rights are protected by law.
The lack of consistency can be led back to the difference between the provisions of the Civil Code and Act LVIII of 1997 on Business Advertising Activity. Under Section 85 of the Civil Code inherent rights may only be enforced in person.
There are two exceptions to the above rule laid down in the Civil Code:
- The legal representative of an incompetent person, or the relative or conservator of a missing person whose whereabouts are unknown shall be entitled to proceed in the protection of that person's inherent rights.
- In the case of impairment to the memory of a deceased person, the relative and/or the person having been named as the heir apparent in the will of the deceased shall be entitled to file a court action. If conduct causing defamation to a deceased person (former legal person) infringes upon the public interest, the public prosecutor shall also be entitled to enforce this inherent right.
The Act on Business Advertising Activity provides for several general advertising prohibitions and restrictions. Under Section 4 of this act advertising may not be published if it infringes personal rights, respect for the deceased or rights related to the protection of personal data. Under Section 16 of this act advertising control proceedings may be initiated upon request or ex officio. Based on the regulation of the Act on Business Advertising Activity advertising control proceedings may be requested by any person whose rights or rightful interests, or legal status is injured by violation of any provisions relating to commercial advertising activity. If the aggrieved consumer cannot be identified, or if enforcement of the claims is inappropriate considering the number of consumers injured, administrative agencies or non-governmental organizations providing for consumer interests shall also be entitled to initiate proceedings.
When the regulations of the Civil Code on enforcement of inherent rights are compared with that of the Act on Business Advertising Activity, it can be established that provisions of the latter act are not in compliance with the provisions of the Civil Code. On the basis of the decision No. 1270/B/1997 of the Hungarian Constitutional Court, the inconsistency is not significant, the different regulatory of the mentioned acts is not unconstitutional. I take the view that in order to achieve consistent regulation the Act on Business Advertising Activity should be modified by prohibiting the advertising control proceedings initiated ex officio in relation to the advertisings which infringe personal rights.
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Az egyesülettel összefüggő új polgári jogi szabályozás az alkotmánybírósági határozatok tükrében
Megtekintések száma:90After the creation of the Basic Law of Hungary, and following a drawn discussion Act CLXXV of 2011 on the Right of Association and the Operation and Funding of Civil Society organizations has come into force (hereinafter referred to as Civil Act). The Civil Act repealed a lot former provitions, thus the Act II. of 1989 on the Right of Association, the law concerning non-profit status, and the provitions related to association of the previous Civil Code. The new Act V of 2013 in the Civil Code has also brought significant changes according to associations.
The base of the rules has changed considerabely, as the permissive legislation, and the freedom of the parties has become the main line.
At present to association the Civil Act, the new regulations about the court registration of associations – such as Act CLXXXI of 2011 –, and the provisions concerning legal persons and associations of the new Civil Code should be applied.
Since the relevant legal regulation has changed, the previous judicial practice is not applicable, courts have to answer the questions among the new legal circumstances as well. However it is sure that the basis of association is the right of association which is a constitutional fundamental right. Due to these significant changes in this paper I have examined those important Constitutional Court Rulings which can be connected with the right of association, and I have tried to compare the decisions of the Constitutional Court with the new present regulation.
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Ítélkezési állandók és vitás kérdések az erkölcsi kártérítés újabb magyar joggyakorlatában
Megtekintések száma:56Since 1992, date of Constitutional Court’s decision No. 34/1992, certain rules cannot be found in Hungarian Civil Code. There is only a part of a sentence that gives right to any injured person to claim damages in case of personal injuries. More than 10 years after the cassation we are able to look through the legal practice in connection with damages for non-pecuniary loss. The recent re-codifying process plans a brand new institution to substitute and follow damages for non pecuniary loss: pain award. To establish a decent regulation of pain award, jurisdiction of the last decade cannot be neglected. This essay aims to gather typical and crystallized methods of judgements in certain cases, which could be seen as essential and accepted unwritten rules of jurisdiction concerning this field of damages.
One of the most difficult problems to solve is the question of amount. This field of damages for non-pecuniary loss is always problematic, because all of the cases are different. Although there are similarities between cases if we examine just damages themselves, but due to the difference of human personality it is almost impossible to give exact phrases and rules to help our judges. We can say that highest amounts are generated by assaults against physical integrity and life. Examination during a legal procedure concentrates on the stress caused by the injury, number of injured rights, age of the injured person and the durability of the harm. If the injured person contributed to the injury, it generates reduced amount of damages.
Method of compensation is really simple for the first time. Hungarian legal system knows two different types for the method of damages: in kind or in money. Former one is inapplicable for non-pecuniary losses. If we compensate in money, there are two solutions: injured person can get the whole sum immediately or we can choose allowance as well. The adaptation of allowance is rather small in Hungary, in spite of the advantages this legal institution could offer. It does not mean res iudicata, so it is flexible and offers opportunity to adjust to changed circumstances in the future: both duration and amount of allowance could be changed.
It is an interesting question whether personal circumstances of the misdoer could be examined when calculating the amount of allowance. The answer is not unambiguous. Civil law focuses on compensation for the injured party, not the punishment of the misdoer. In spite of this essential lemma, it is necessary to take into account the solvency of the defendant, if we want the plaintiff to get the adjudged amount really.
Youth is not the only reason of allowance, sometimes old age could be a well-based legal ground for application of this method of compensation as well. It is really important to examine the personal circumstances of the injured party to choose between these two methods: which one serves the aim of compensation, moderation of lost joy of life the most.
Civil Code precludes the possibility to apply both methods together for the same plaintiff. In my opinion the solution of German Civil Code (BGB) should be considered. BGB allows both methods together. It means that possibilities could be wider and fit better to the actual case and its circumstances.
Although obligation of damages has two parties traditionally, in a legal procedure of damages for non-pecuniary loss this bipolar situation can be proven false. On the part of the misdoer it is an interesting question what kind of damages can be blamed the state. In Hungary we can meet rules order the responsibility of the state in the field of medical damages or damages for unlawful arrest and illegal imprisonment. Amounts of damages are the highest in these situations.
On the part of the injured person an often argued problem the position of secondary victims’ claims. These claims are always problematic, because personality rights belong closely to the person himself and there is no possibility to inherit them. Hungarian Civil Code admits compensation for relatives only in case of injuring reputation of a dead person. There are several decisions in which courts admit these claims on the ground of their sui generis base. It is a decent solution, but because of the uneven jurisdiction it needs codifying.
We can say that there are a lot of jurisdictional constants in Hungary in connection with damages for non-pecuniary loss. These are easy to collect and most of them are able to be codified in a strictly non-taxative style. But this examination showed that doubtful questions can also be found in Hungary especially the application of allowance, claims of secondary victims. To arrange these problems, starting point should be jurisdiction itself.
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Az új Polgári Perrendtartás osztott tárgyalási rendszere az 1911. évi I. törvénycikk tükrében
88-96Megtekintések száma:85n my paper, I dealt with the divided trial system, because in the Conception of the New Code of Civil Procedure arised the idea, that the first-instance procedure will be regulated by the divided trial system. During my studies, I researched the trial system of the Act I of 1911, and I analyzed the sentencing practice in this era.
First, I presented the matter of the trial system, as well as the two dominant trends in Hungary relating to the creation of civil action. The difference between the two trends, that distinct mesne process creates the civil action. According to one of them, the civil action is created when the defendant gets the statement of claim, or, on the other hand, when the defendant submits countermotion.
In the next chapter, I intended to present the point of intersection of action, which legal institution separates the first-instance procedure to pre-trial hearing and the trial on the merits.
After this chapter, I reportedtheresults of sentencing practice and cametotwoconclusions. Ontheonehand, thepre-trialhearinghangedfirefor a longtimebecause of theappealproceedings. Ontheotherhand, thesentencing practice wasnotconsistent, becausethecourtsused an incorrectterminology. Thecourtsdismissedtheproceedingsbeforethesubmission ofcountermotion, butaccordingtotheAct of 1911 themesneprocess of creating a civil actionwastosubmit a countermotion.
Inconclusion, I thinkthe divided trial system of the New Code of Civil Procedure will be totally different than the divided trial system of the Act of 1911.
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Gondolatok a pótmagánvádról
Megtekintések száma:70In Hungary the new code of criminal procedure established a new legal institution to the Hungarian legal system: accessory private prosecution. This kind of private prosecution gives opportunity to the afflicted person to continue penal procedure in case of negative sentences from investigation authorities. If the prosecutor or the investigation authority stops proceeding or the prosecutor sets aside, withdraws formal accusation, afflicted person can substitute them during a penal procedure and has a right to claim the continuation of it. Our valid code does not limit the field of crimes this legal institution of accessory private prosecution can be applied. But there are some strict reasons, which limit this right of the afflicted person. If the investigation authorities neglected formal accusation because of childhood, death, prescription, clemency, prohibition of ne bis in idem, accessory private prosecution cannot be applied.
Pros of accessory private prosecution can be found in the rights of afflicted persons. Criminal power of the state cannot be absolute, so we have to give the right for the injured to judge whether he insists on taking the responsibility of the perpetrator despite the opposite opinion of public bodies. This legal institution can help omissions of prosecutors to be remedied. Practicing this right depends on the stadium of the procedure. During the investigation period or the period of formal accusation reasons for accessory private prosecution are different.
According to the new rules of the code, applying an advocate in the procedure is an obligation for the afflicted person. This regulation ensures that the structure of penal proceedings cannot be changed basically. In a normal procedure there is always a professional expert, the prosecutor on the side of accusation. That is why the code does not permit accusation without applying an advocate.
Costs are interesting question in case of accessory private prosecution. In popular action procedures costs are paid by the state. When the afflicted person practices the right of accessory private prosecution, state pays in advance, but if perpetrator is acquitted or the court stops proceeding, costs should be paid by the private prosecutor himself. There are some rules to ease this burden for the afflicted person: if he has bad financial capacity and he can certify this circumstance, court can authorize him not to pay for the fee of the advocate.
There is a special question in connection with accessory private prosecution: representation of the state. In these procedures the afflicted person is the state or one of the state bodies itself. There are two points of view to answer the question: who is authorized to represent the state as an accessory private prosecutor during a penal procedure. First we have to make difference between the injuries: if the injury is against the state while practising public authority, the injured party is the state itself. But if the injury hit the state as a civil legal entity, a possessor, the right to claim is in the hand of that public body, which was entrusted to handle the injured property. This theory means that in case of injuries against the public author state, only the prosecutor can represent it, so there is no chance for accessory private prosecution.
The other solution for this problem has its starting point that in every crime against public property, accessory private prosecution can be applied. In this case the state can be represented by that part of it, which has interest. Although there are no jurisdiction in this question, because accessory private prosecution was established by the new code from 1st July 2003 after fifty years into the Hungarian legal practice. According to the regulations of the code, we can find the following sentence: afflicted person is whose right or legal interest was hurt or endangered by the crime. Analyzing this definition the argument can be read previously is decent for those situations, when we would like to find the legal representative of the state as an accessory private prosecutor.
Accessory private prosecution is a good solution that fits to the new directions of law development, to increase rights of the afflicted person. Naturally, time needs to become a well-adopted legal institution in Hungarian legal system after half a century silence.
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A szerződési jog alapelveinek értelmezése és funkciói a német polgári jogban
Megtekintések száma:49To describe the functions of principles we can say that all of them are fundamental basis of an area of law. They declare or solve concrete debates between the parties. If there is a problem with interpreting of a rule in the civil code, judges has this helping hand. In Germany the development of principles in the field of contract law has a really unique historical root. At the time of BGB’s birth, the German Civil Code did not accept any exculpation under the rule pacta sunt servanda. Moral philosophers acknowledged that a contract as private interest of the parties needs special protection from the state. It is not only a personal relationship, because self welfare leads to welfare of the public. The law has to regulate this field and give instruments of protection for both parties to ensure peace and equality in the field of public relations and moral.
After the First World War, Rechtsmark (German currency) had its deepest point in its history. The inflation was so high that the performance of a contract made before the war was absolutely unfair for the supplier. For the cost of one galloon gas anyone could buy the entire stock after the war. There was a too late and too small reaction from the state for this situation. An Act had been accepted in 1925 about revalorization. The main fault of this Act was the strict and very small applicability in the field of contracts. The regulations of it were applicable only for contracts with large economic potential.
German jurisdiction had to solve the problem. The most difficult part of this process was how to dissolve the strict paradigm of pacta sunt servanda. Oertmann, a German legal expert created the collapse of the foundation of the transaction. It meant that changed circumstances deprive the contract from its ground, the need of the party. Anybody who signs a contract has a need and tries to create all conditions of that specific contract to harmonize with his or her needs and interest. In case of an essential change of circumstances this interest modifies and the original transaction became tremendously onerous for him or her. The doctrine of Oertmann was insisted on pacta sunt servanda, so after the change of circumstances the whole contract failed.
Jurisdiction in Germany accepted Oertmann’s doctrine with a completion. Judges vindicated the right for themselves to modify the contract to be suitable for the new interests of the parties. This modification meant the implementation of clausula rebus sic stantibus into German contract law. It became applicable worldwide in the field of long term relationship of the parties.
In this essay I examine not only the development of these contractual principles in Germany but the effectiveness and functions of them. I describe and define the legal interest of regulating contracts and what is the connection between private and public interest in the field of the law of contracts. As a defect of the contractual procedure non-performance and other breach of a contract have special importance in civil law. Good faith is a basic principle of civil law in Hungary too and in most European civil codes. The interpretation of German good faith theory (Treu und Glauben) is significant from the viewpoint of the judicial modification of contracts. In case of clausula rebus sic stantibus if the party wants to ground his or her claim, he or she has to prove the good faith as a moral standard to be an exculpation under the heavy burden of pacta sunt servanda. The conclusion is that in Germany the basic element of private contracts is not the consent of parties but good faith of them. The socially excepted moral appears through the requirement of good faith of the parties. The law has to ensure that in any period of a contractual relationship this good faith exists.
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A zálogjog és a hitelbiztosítéki nyilvántartás
15-26Megtekintések száma:145Analyzing th esystem of mortgage we must reach back to the Roman Law. At that era it had been possible to pledge liabilities, rights and moreover aggregated asset, property. Mortgage is a long term institute of Hungarian Private Law as well. Paragraphs 251 – 269 of Act IV of 1959 on the Civil Code of the Republic of Hungary regulates mortgage in the Law of Obligations, placed among collaterals. In the last two decades the old Civil Code of the Republic of Hungary has been modified twice. Act V of 2013on the Civil Code of the Republic of Hungary weakens but definitely rewritten the principles of lending. Regulation of mortgage and the system of chattel mortgage registry has significantly changed. Several novelty has been introduced therefore the system of chattel mortgage registry was reformed too. Detailed regulations of credit guarantee registry in Act CCXXI of 2013 and Act 18/2014. (III. 13.) KIM has also been accepted correspondingly to the previous changes.
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Előreláthatósági klauzula a szerződések jogában
Megtekintések száma:59The essay is about the clause of foreseeability in connection with damages for breach of a contract. This seems to be a constant problem throughout the history of law how and when it is reasonably to limit the amount of damages in case of breach.
The general principle of full compensation originates in the main purpose of private law, restoring the violated financial situation. At the same time in business relations it often happens that damages occurred as consequences of breach highly exceed the contractual interest of the party and generate indirect damages independent from the violator’s influence. This is considered to be the starting point of the dilemma about restricting the damages availably for compensation.
Full compensation and its relation to breach of a contract occurred in the Hungarian jurisprudence many times. Miklós Világhy suggested the reconsideration of full compensation in contract law in 1971. Attila Harmathy also suggested the implementation of foreseeability clause in the rules of contract law as the ‘best possible way to treat business relations between the parties’.
Due to the historic and social differences various forms of foreseeability are known in the legal systems.
The study examines the development of foreseeability, its first codification in the French Napoleonic Code Civil, its application in the law of the USA and some significant sentences of English courts. The first application of foreseeability was in the infamous Hadley v. Baxendale case, in which an English court worked out the meaning of contemplation rules. In the case of Victoria Laundry Ld. v. Newman Industries Ld. (1949) the court defined the meaning of foreseeability. According to the sentence of the case damages are limited to those that were foreseeable for the party at the time of entering a contract. The study also analyzes the German model of restricting damages of breach. The German theory ensures the possibility of exoneration for the violator if the other party failed to give proper information about the unusual danger of breach in the particular case. If the entitled party acted intentionally, the German law accepts exoneration. The essay demonstrates the adequate causality conception of the German law. This theory states that an act can only be the probable cause if – due to the normal and reasonable procession – it is able to cause such consequence. In our opinion foreseeability gives a stricter and much better solution of restricting damages with a more objective measurement for the obliged party on how to calculate his behavior in a certain contractual relation. The amount of risk can be predicted if the rules of damages for breach are based on foreseeability rather than adequate causality.
The new Hungarian Civil Code plans to establish objective liability in contract law. The only exoneration can be the successful reference to unavoidable external cause. Beside this stricter liability the new Civil Code also introduce the possibility of limitation in damages, the application of foreseeability clause. This seems to be a significant preference for the obliged party. As in the Hungarian legal history foreseeability clause was never used, it is an essential question how judicature will interpret the rule in practice. In our opinion for an adequate application of the new clause it is necessary to take a closer look at the United Nations Convention on the International Sale of Goods (CISG), the Principles of European Contract Law (PECL) and the interpretation in the American and English case law. This study tries to give some help for it.
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Gondolatok az erkölcsi károkhoz kapcsolódó hozzátartozói igények megengedhetőségéről
Megtekintések száma:49On the very swampy field of damages for non-pecuniary loss there is a special problem called claims of relatives. These claims are also known as claims of secondary victims or third parties. In this legal situation the injury itself hurts not the claimer himself. The claimer has non-pecuniary or moral loss because of his connection with the injured person. He is not the direct and suffering subject but the one who has a loss in his personal rights.
In Hungary the question is whether these claims can be permitted or not. During the changing structure of damages for non-pecuniary loss in the second half of the 20th century, this problem fitted to the actual judgement of moral damages. Now days the question is a little bit easier: in almost every decision courts admit the right of relatives to claim damages for an injury against there beloved relative, but in most of the cases they demand that plaintiffs has to demonstrate manifested losses not only the infringement of their personality rights.
In this essay beside the Hungarian jurisdiction I examine German, French, English, Belgian and Dutch legal points of view too. The most interesting and – in my opinion – the one that can be useful for the upcoming new Hungarian Civil Code is the Dutch system.
Dutch Civil Code limits the possibility of ‘third parties’ to claim damages for non-pecuniary loss as a result of the injury or death of another person. In typical cases the plaintiff would like to claim compensation because he suffered mental illness from witnessing the death of another person, namely a relative. This claim is not awarded by Dutch courts because of the prohibition of Civil Code, but the interpretation of the mentioned provision lives restrictively in jurisdiction. We can find two situations when the claim of third parties can be awarded. First of all, the claimant can only claim for damages, caused by a mental trauma because of being witness of an injury against another person, if he can establish that the aggressor (defendant) also committed an unlawful act vis-à-vis the claimant himself, which resulted in the trauma. It is really difficult to be demonstrated because of the causation required by BW. The process to verify that the aggressor, who committed an unlawful act against another person, causes the trauma is almost impossible in some cases. The second chance of the secondary victim to claim for compensation is if he verifies that the trauma amounts to physical or non-physical injury. If this is the case, the claimant can get compensation of his pecuniary loss (such as cost of medical treatment) and non-pecuniary loss on the basis of his non-physical personal injury.
A famous case in Dutch case law is ‘Taxi bus case’. A 5-year old little girl was riding her bike close to her home, when a taxi bus overruns her. The bus actually rides over the girl’s head. The mother was immediately warned by one of the neighbours and found her daughter with her face turned to the ground. First, the mother called the ambulance hoping that the girl was still alive. When the mother tried to turn her daughter’s head to look her in the face, she experienced that her hand disappeared into the skull of the girl. The mother noticed that the substance next to her girl’s head was not, as she considered, her vomit, but appeared to be the girl’s brain itself. The mother suffered severe mental illness because of the shock of this sight and the realization. Dutch law is consequent in the question that there is no claim for non-pecuniary damages subsequent to death of a relative. Taxi bus case was the first when Dutch Supreme Court awarded the right to compensation of non-pecuniary damages to somebody who lost his relative. The decision contained that the act committed towards the child, must also be regarded as tortuous towards the mother. The Court emphasized that there was a distinction between the consequences of the child’s death, for which no non-pecuniary damages may be awarded, and the consequences of the confrontation with the accident, for which damages may indeed be awarded. The mother received 14,000 Euros for non-pecuniary damages. This case shows that although in principle the plaintiff has a right to claim compensation for the exact damages he suffered, the courts are free to assess the damage in a more abstract way, if that corresponds better to its nature.
Examining this case it is obvious that extra conditions are demanded to claim for non-pecuniary damages because of the loss of a relative. Only the fact of losing a close relative is not enough for a successful action. There have to be special circumstances, which demonstrate that the unlawful act made a direct effect to the plaintiff, who became the primary victim.
The English solution is interesting because not only the relatives have right to claim but almost anybody who can verify a close relationship with the injured person. In my opinion this system ensures a more coherent and logical jurisdiction, because during the examination of authorization not only a legal fact – being a relative of the injured person – establishes the right to claim but a real emotional relationship.
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A vagyoni értékű jogok apportálhatósága és az egységes szabályozás hiányának problematikája
114-120Megtekintések száma:342According to the new Hungarian Civil Code, the funders of the legal entities have to make contributions to the authorised capital and the two forms of these contributions are the contribution is cash and the contribution in kind. The regulation states that proprietary rights can also be transferred to the capital of businness accociations, by those funders, who are entitled to demise them.
The judicial practice unanimously defined the rules in those cases, when the object of contribution in kind is a certain proprietary right, especially when the right is connected to the real estate. On the other hand, the Civil Code does not contain a list of those proprietary rights, which can be transferred to the authorised capital and unfortunately, different acts contain different lists of these rights.
The three mentioned acts are the following: the personal income tax act, the act about the fees and the accounting act. All of them contain a list of proprietary rights and some of the items are regulated by all the three of them but most of the items are different, which means it is impossible to create an accurate list of these rights. For example, the list in the personal income tax act contains only five items, on the other hand, the accounting act contains two lists and both of them are unfinised.
Because of the lack of unified rules, it is impossible to define which proprietary rights can become the objects of contribution in kind and this misfortunate situation causes a lot of unwanted indefinability and states a lot of questions.
In my essay I introduce this problem and I use a chart to illustrate the differences between the mentioned lists. In my opinion, this problem could be solved with an unified list, which is normative for every regulation in connection with the proprietary rights or the Civil Code should contain a list of those proprietary rights, which can be the objects of contribution in kind.
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Atipikus szerződések Magyarországon és Szerbiában
1-16Megtekintések száma:92The paper analyzes the notion and types of atypical contracts, primarily in the Hungarian and
Serbian law, but also in wider, European perspective. The analysis sheds light on the different
terms used in different legal systems to denominate contracts that do not fit explicitly into the
range of nominate contracts, that is into the range of contract-types envisaged by the civil
code or code of obligations, respectively. According to the Hungarian legal literature, all civil
law contracts are divided into two main groups: nominate and innominate contracts. The
former group is further divided into the categories of typical and atypical contracts, while the
latter into the categories of mixed contracts and de facto innominate contracts.
The authors conclude that there is a tendency in Europe, both in the jurisprudence, the
legislation and the application of law, to create a unified and coherent law of contracts, which
affects the range of atypical contracts as well. Most notably, the Draft Common Frame of
Reference, the normative proposal of the Study Group on a European Civil Code and the
Research Group on EC Private Law (Acquis Group), contains model rules on franchise, timesharing,
commercial agency and treatment contracts, just as rules on electronic commerce, on
the one hand. The legislation of the European Union, on the other, aims at the highest possible
level of harmonisation of laws which, from the aspect of protection of consumers and
competition law, affects the range and statutory content of atypical contracts. Finally, the
paper refers to a series of decisions of the Court of Justice of the European Union that tackle
certain features of the atypical contracts, whereby the Court in the determination of issues of
contract law applies a rather functional approach. -
A szellemi alkotások jogának szabályozási kérdései
27-33.Megtekintések száma:148A tanulmány megállapítja, hogy a szellemi alkotásokra vonatkozó szabályozásban a polgári jogi szabályok dominanciája érvényesül. A régi Polgári Törvénykönyv kifejezte a kapcsolódást a szellemi alkotások jogával és szabályozta a know-how jogvédelmét, a joganyag ugyanakkor az ahhoz szervesen kapcsolódó külön jogszabályokban volt fellelhető. Az új Polgári Törvénykönyv, a 2013. évi. V. törvény már nem a szellemi alkotásokhoz fűződő jogok, hanem a „szerzői jog és iparjogvédelem” címet viseli, a know-how pedig az üzleti titok egyik fajtájaként részesült védelemben. A szerzői jog homogén jellegét megtöri a 2016. évi XCIII. törvény, amely a közös jogkezelésről rendelkezik. Az iparjogvédelem területén a legproblematikusabb jogintézmény a know-how volt. Az új Polgári Törvénykönyv szabályai után megszületett 2018. évi LIV. törvény új fejezetet nyit a know-how szabályozása terén. Ezzel kapcsolatban a törvény a 2016/943/EU Irányelvet ülteti át a magyar jogba. A jogalkotó tehát azt a megoldást választotta, hogy az üzleti titok védelmére vonatkozó új fogalmi megközelítést, jogintézményeket és eljárási szabályokat nem a Polgári Törvénykönyvben, hanem egy új jogszabály megalkotása útján tette azokat a nemzeti jog részévé. Ezzel a természetes és jogi személyek magántitkai változatlanul személyiségi jogi védelmet, míg az üzleti titok és a know-how a szellemi tulajdonjogi védelem logikájára és szankciórendszeré épülő védelmet élveznek majd.
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A szennyező fizet elvének megjelenése a magyar polgári jogban, különös tekintettel a veszélyes üzemi felelősség kérdéseire
89-106Megtekintések száma:86The polluter pays principle is one of the basic principles of international environmental law
mentioned directly firstly only in 1972, however the principle were declared in 1929 in the
well-known Trail Smelter Case. The polluter pays is an economical principle, and in the
meaning of this principle the costs of pollution shall be shared between industrial companies
and consumers. Taking into consideration that after applying this principle price of products
will be higher than before, industrial companies shall reduce their pollution in the interest of
their (and their products’) competitiveness. Seeing the development of the principle in EU
level, the polluter pays were mentioned first time in the first „programme of action of the
European Communities on the environment” adopted in 1973. However it is questionable
what polluter, pollution, obligation of polluter and costs of pollution mean exactly, and for
this reason this principle cannot be applied automatically.
In this study I try to examine how the polluter pays principle works in the Hungarian national
law, especially in the Hungarian Civil Code. For this reason I examine the applicability of
Article 345 of the Hungarian Civil Code („Damages Originating from Hazardous
Operations”), with special regard to the case-law of the Hungarian civil courts. I also try to
introduce the possibilities and obligations of the public prosecutor in environmental issues. -
A vétőképtelen személy károkozásáért való felelősség
92-101Megtekintések száma:180The new Hungarian Civil Code also modernizes the non-contractual liability law in several aspects. Even if the so-called general clause of non-contractual liability reamains unchanged, its contstitutive elements are regulated in detail in the new Civil Code. The new Code also introduces some new provisions with regard to liability for dameges caused by a person of lack of discretionary power. The objektive of this survey is to present these changes and to examine its possible impacts on judicial practice.
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A kellékszavatosság és jótállás szabályozásának történeti áttekintése
13-24Megtekintések száma:160A kellékszavatosság és a jótállás a polgári jog klasszikus jogintézményei, és a fogyasztóvédelmi jog területén is kiemelkedő jelentőséggel bírnak. Jelen tanulmány alapvetően ezen jogintézmények magyarországi szabályozási rendszerét tekinti át.
A vizsgálat a 20. század elején kidolgozott, de hatályba nem lépett magánjogi kódextervezetekkel veszi kezdetét, majd a Polgári Törvénykönyvről szóló 1959. évi IV. és 2013. évi V. törvények releváns rendelkezéseit veszi górcső alá, ugyanakkor nem terjed ki az alacsonyabb szintű jogszabályok, például a „kötelező jótállásról” szóló kormányrendeletek rendelkezéseinek vizsgálatára sem.
A tanulmány alapvetően a hazánkban alkalmazott szabályozási modellek sajátosságainak, esetleges hiányosságainak, hibáinak a feltárására koncentrál, illetve igyekszik megtalálni azokat a fordulópontokat, és a fordulópontokhoz kapcsolódó jogpolitikai indokokat, amelyek jelentős változásokat hoztak a jogintézmények életében.
Ezen gondolatmenet alapján a dolgozatban a következő tematika figyelhető meg. Az első nagy szerkezeti elemet az 1900-as, 1913-as és 1928-as magánjogi kódextervezetek ismertetése teszi ki, mely tervezetek jelentős hasonlóságot mutattak a „dolog hiányaiért való felelősség” és a jótállás tekintetében.
Ezt követően az 1959. évi IV. törvény bemutatás következik, mely jogszabály – hosszan fennálló hatálya alatt - mindössze kétszer - 1977-ben és az uniós jogharmonizáció nyomán 2003-ban – esett át a jogintézmények szempontjából lényeges változásokon.
Végezetül a jelenleg hatályos törvénykönyvünk szabályrendszerének áttekintésére kerül sor, mely jogszabály hozott ugyan néhány újdonságot a vizsgált téma szempontjából, ugyanakkor mivel a jogharmonizáció alapját képező uniós jogszabályok a törvénykönyv hatályba lépése előtt nem változtak, így a jogintézmények nagy mértékű, jelentős változásokat igénylő reformja sem volt indokolt.
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Gondolatok az üzletrészek örökléséről
Megtekintések száma:77The article focuses on the successions of the business shares which are in the Hungarian limited liability companies. There are several changes because of the new Civil Code that affected this area although we have to examine the former regulation because of the period of validity, too.
The succession law is the area of the law with whom every people has connection at least once in their life. The number of the legacies grows in which business shares can be founded because more and more people are participating in business societies.
The new method of the regulation differs from the previous. The new Hungarian Civil Code (Act V of 2013) consists of not only the “classical” civil law (for example property law, law of contracts) but the family law even the business law. Before this there were two separate laws and because of this situation we have to examine the relation of these laws and their methods of regulations.
Afterwards we study the state of the successors in the Hungarian limited liability companies. It diverges from the other companies because the limited liability companies are transitions between general and limited partnerships and joint-stock companies. There were more ideas how to regulate this company; at the end it has differences but not so significant.
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A polgári perrendtartás újragondolt alapelvei – elvárások és tapasztalatok:
118-127.Megtekintések száma:195Jelen tanulmány központi témája a magyar polgári perrendtartás kodifikációjának során újraszabályozott alapelvek egyes jellemzői. Elmondható, hogy az alapelvek száma és tartalma is koncentráltabb lett a kodifikáció eredményeképpen.
A polgári perrendtartásról szóló 2016. évi CXXX. törvény (továbbiakban: Pp.) számos koncepcionális változást hozott, ami az alapelvek tekintetében is megfigyelhető. Megújult a Pp. alapelvi fejezete, amelyben olyan elvek is rögzítésre kerültek, amelyeket a magyar polgári eljárásjog eddig még nem ismert. Jelen tanulmány áttekinti ezeket a változásokat és igyekszik állást foglalni az alapelvek tartalmát illetően is, külön vizsgálat tárgyává téve a jogalkotó által is kiemelt célkitűzésként megfogalmazott perkoncentráció elvét.
A dolgozat elemezni az alapelvekkel kapcsolatos szakmai vitákat, és megkísérel választ adni arra, hogy a hatályba lépés óta eltelt időszak tapasztalatai beváltották-e az alapelvi reformhoz fűzött egyes elvárásokat. A tanulmány vizsgálja a megváltozott szabályozást, amelyek a szakirodalomban is ellenkező álláspontok kialakulásához vezettek. Fontos témája a dolgozatnak, hogy az osztott perszerkezethez igazodóan a bíróság közrehatási tevékenysége is változáson ment keresztül. E változás az alapelvekben is megfigyelhető, mivel új alapelvként jelent meg a bíróság közrehatási kötelezettsége. Elemzésre kerül továbbá az igazmondás és a jóhiszeműség alapelvek egyes jellemzői.
A tanulmány igyekszik külföldi példákon keresztül megvilágítani a polgári perrendtartás alapelvi kérdéseit, amelynek során főként a német szabályozás egyes elemei kerülnek említésre.
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A magyar öröklési jog fragmentálódása, változásai
81-103Megtekintések száma:226Az örökléshez való jogot az Alaptörvény elismeri, a részletes anyagi jogi szabályok a Polgári Törvénykönyv Hetedik Könyvében kerültek rögzítésre. Az utóbbi években a jogalkotó a magánjogi kódexünkön túlmenő egyéb jogszabályokban anyagi jogi öröklési szabályokat fogalmazott meg. A bejegyzett élettársi kapcsolatról szóló törvény szerint a házastársra vonatkozó szabályokat a bejegyzett élettársra is megfelelően alkalmazni kell, ami azt jelenti, hogy a bejegyzett élettárs is törvényes örökös. A mező- és erdőgazdasági földek tulajdonjogának végintézkedéssel történő megszerzésének speciális szabályait rögzíti a földforgalmi törvény (2013. évi CXXII. törvény). 2023. január 1-jén lép hatályba egy újabb törvény (2021. évi CXLIII. törvény), ami a Ptk-beli öröklési jogi rendelkezéseket egészíti ki, az osztatlan közös tulajdonban álló termőföldek több örököstárs általi közös törvényes öröklése esetére. Az államot az öröklési jogi jogviszonyokban képviselő állami szerv kijelöléséről egy külön miniszteri rendelet rendelkezik. A jelen írás azt elemzi, hogy mindezen összetett, szórt szabályozás hogyan nehezíti a jogalkalmazást, mennyiben akadályozza a hagyatéki eljárások gyors lefolytatását. A jelen írás kritikával illeti a fragmentált szabályozást és javaslatot tesz a külön törvények szabályainak a Ptk.-ba történő integrálására, ugyanis ez hozzájárulhat a hatékonyabb jogalkalmazáshoz.
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A bírósági végrehajtási eljárás cselekményeinek láncolatát átmenetileg megakasztó jogintézmények
9-18Megtekintések száma:174This study presents the legal institutions that temporarily interrupt the chain of procedural actions of the judicial foreclosure, namely the interruption, suspension and intermission of the foreclosure. In the publication - as an acting lawyer - pragmatism has an emphasised role and it highlights the problems that arise when applying the legal institutions and offers alternatives and de lege ferenda solutions. The author seeks to draw the reader's attention to the interrelations and differences between legal institutions for the sake of clarity. Furthermore the speciality of this study is that it uses the civil procedural regulations which are applicable as a background standard for the Code of Judicial Foreclosure, from the new Code of Civil Procedure which entered into force on 1 January 2018, referring in several places simultaneously to the regulations of the previous CCP.
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A közút tartozéka: egy sajátos jogintézmény ellentmondásai
Megtekintések száma:67In the legal terminology of private law several times the same definition is used for addressing the same legal institution (e.g. default penalty, in-building). In most of the cases there is no problem to separate these institutions and we can also give an explanation why legislator used the same terminology.
The definition of accessory is used for a special group of article groups in the Hungarian Civil Code and also used in the Act I. of 1988. From the angle of judicature it is problematic as even if the definition of road accessory is build upon the general terminology of accessory in the Civil Code, the two legal institutions are not the same.
In the essay we would like to emphasize that the safety of traffic does not give a decent reason why we have to restrict the proprietary rights with using the institution of road accessory. This restriction is in a close connection with not only the distance from the public road but the effect of the property to the safety of traffic. The valid regulations may cause illogical contradictions and judicature problem.
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A kamat szerepe a polgári peres eljárásokban
42-46Megtekintések száma:260A tanulmány a kamattal kapcsolatos különböző igények polgári perben való érvényesítését, azok speciális perjogi szabályait tekinti át, hangsúlyozva, hogy a pénzkövetelések érvényesítéséhez képest eljárásjogi szempontból kevés egyedi normával találkozhatunk az eljárási kódexben. Összeveti ugyanakkor az írás az 1952. évi III. törvény és az új Pp., a 2016. évi CXXX. törvény kamattal kapcsolatos rendelkezéseit és igyekszik adekvát válaszokat adni a szabályozási hiátusból eredő jogalkalmazási kérdésekre. A cikk megállapítása szerint a perjog általában a főköveteléssel együtt érvényesített járulékokra vonatkozóan egységesen fogalmaz meg néhány egyedi eljárásjogi rendelkezést, melyek a főkövetelés járulékaként a kamatra is irányadóak, elenyésző a tisztán kamatspecifikus rendelkezések száma hatályos perjogunkban. Kitér az elemzés a pertárgy érték meghatározása, a kereseti kérelemhez kötöttség, az elsőfokú ítélet kamatra vonatkozó rendelkezései elleni fellebbezés, a kamatot érintő keresetfelemelés másodfokon való megengedhetősége és a jogerős ítéletnek kizárólag a kamatot érintő rendelkezései elleni felülvizsgálati kérelem megengedhetősége kapcsán a kamatot érintő egyedi törvényi rendelkezésekre és eseti bírósági döntések elemzése útján értékeli a judikatúra irányait. Megállapítja a szerző, hogy az egységes és koherens ítélkezési gyakorlat az egyértelmű törvényi rendelkezésekre alapítottan megfelelően szolgálja az igényérvényesítő felek érdekeit.
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A Digitális Egységes Piaci Stratégia szerződési jogi hatásai a magyar polgári jogra
108-120Megtekintések száma:126The necessity of framing contract law fulfilling the expectations of the digital era is among the main purposes of the Digital Single Market Strategy, that has been introduced by the European Committe in 2015. Within the Strategy two directive proposals have been presented: the directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on certain aspects concerning contracts for the supply of digital content and the directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on certain aspects concerning contracts for the online and other distance sales of goods. These include the concept of conformity with the contract, the meaning of which raises several questions to be answered regarding the Hungarian legal system.
My treatise focuses on the investigation of the criteria of conformity with the contract with special regard to the definiton of the directive proposals. In the first place I outline the elements of conformity with the contract, then I attempt to create a comprehensive definition of it. Thereafter I analyse the rules of the Hungarian Civil Code that are connected to the category of the conformity. Furthermore, I investigate the necessity of the integration of the conformity with the contract into the the Hungarian civil law. Finally, I present a future legislative concept that could be regarded as a possible way of adaptation of this legal category.
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A élettársi kapcsolatról a hatályos bírói gyakorlat és a Ptk. Koncepció alapján
Megtekintések száma:48An examination of the statistical data reveals that the number of marriages concluded has significantly decreased in recent years, accompanied by an increase in divorce cases. In a parallel way, there is a growing number of domestic partnerships.[1]
This study surveys the judicial practice of this field in the past two decades with the intention of attempting to describe and shed some light on the essence of domestic partnership in Hungary by way of discussing some of the most important cases and the relevant provisions of law. In view of the fact that preparation for the codification of the new Civil Code is now under way and new rules are expected to enter into force in 2 or 3 years, the changes anticipated in this area are also briefly addressed in the study. Since the Proposal intends to change the current legal provisions in three areas, special emphasis was laid on these, namely:
1. Under certain conditions, as defined by law, alimony may be awarded to a formal domestic partner.
2. Continued use of the place of residence earlier shared with the former domestic partner is possible also after the termination of the domestic partnership.
3. A former domestic partner may request that the property relations be settled after the termination of the domestic partnership.
[1] Domestic partnerships were first surveyed in Hungary in the 1970 census: the number of such relationships, which was 62 thousand in 1970, doubled by 1990, and increased by nearly four and half times by 2001. As a result of these developments, 74% of the 2,869,000 families counted were based on a married couple. Ten years before this proportion was still 80%, while three decades ago it was as high as 88%. (Népszámlálás [Census], Vol. 2001, no. 19. “Family types, family forms”, KSH, p. 17).