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• Manifestations of Para-administration in Hungarian Public Administration

  Attila Barta

  Views:

  76

  Az angol nyelven olvasható értekezés alapját a 2007. november 8-án Sninában (Szlovákiában) megrendezett Nemzetközi Konferencián tartott angol nyelvű előadásom képezi. Az írás középpontjában egy közigazgatási jogi fogalomnak, a közvetett közigazgatás jelenségének és annak egyes megnyilvánulási formáinak bemutatása áll. A paraetatizmus az ún. atipikus közigazgatás részét képezi. Lényegében egy gyüjtőkategória, mely számos megoldást foglal magában. A kérdéskör azonban ezidáig viszonylag kis figyelmet kapott a közigazgatás kutatói részéről.

  Az egyszerűség és a könnyebb megértés érdekében az értekezés három nagy szerkezeti egységre tagolódik.

  I.

  A dolgozat elején azoknak a történelmi folyamatoknak és jellemzőknek a bemutatására kerül sor, melyek végső soron a vizsgált megoldások kialakulásához vezettek. Ennek során fokozatosan eljutunk a direkt (lényegében szűk értelemben vizsgált) közigazgatás fogalmától az indirekt közigazgatás, azaz paraetatizmus jelenségéhez. Nélkülüzhetetlen azonban annak a hangsúlyozása, hogy a közvett közigazgatás egy meglehetősen tág kategória, mely tartalmában erőteljesen heterogén. A paraetatizmus fogalmán belül vizsgált jelenségeknek nincs taxatív felsorolása. Nem is lehet, hiszen a lehetséges megoldások köre koronként és területenként is változhat, és változik is.

  II.

  A dolgozat második része a magyar szabályozás ismertetésével foglalkozik. Először a hatályos jogi szabályozás bemutatására kerül sor, mely egyúttal rávilágít arra az igen fontos tényre is, hogy a paraetatikus megoldások alkalmazására mind az államigazgatás területén, mind pedig az önkormányzati közigazgatás keretein belül adott a lehetőség. Ezután kerül sor a konkrét megoldások bemutatására, azaz a köztestületek, a magánszemélyek felhatalmazása köfeladatok ellátására, a közvetítő szervezetek és személyek, a magánszféra szereplőinek, valamint a non-profit szektor szerepének ismertetésére.

  III.

  Végezetül a harmadik gondolati egység az, amely összegző jelleggel tartalmazza állásfoglalásomat a bemutatott megoldások közigazgatásban való alkalmazhatóságával kapcsolatban. Ennek a gondolati egységnek a jelentősége abban ragadható meg, hogy rámutat arra a szerepkörre, melyet ezek a megoldások egy már létező, élő, működő közigazgatásban betölthetnek. Ezek a megoldások ugyanis a mindenkori közigazgatás kisegítésére, a már alkalmazott megoldások kiegészítésére szolgálnak és sohasem azok helyettesítésére, illetve negligálására.

• Egészség vagy munka? Az egészséges környezethez való jog megvalósulása a munkaviszonyban

  43-50

  Dávid Ittzés

  Views:

  52

  Without abstract.

• Money floating away in Public Health - Case study of a criminal procedure lasting for years

  15-25

  Tamás Kiss

  Views:

  76

  In the financing of the Public Health System, it has a particular significance on the one hand that those obligated do pay the required taxes and levies (Health contribution) in order, and on the other, to use the already available resources only to the purpose that laws allow.

  The institutes that provide public health care services maintain themselves in part or on the whole on the support of the central budget or the Health Insurance Fund. The criteria listed by Law indicate and limit on what the institutes may spend the amount of funds received, which areas should they strive to develop.

  The question arises that how other charges, such as expenses related to the quality management system, can fit into this well-defined scope. In my opinion, it would be possible to avoid the giving away of unrealistically large amounts of money to semi-, or fully illegal businesses with greater circumspection, because otherwise too many sources are distracted from Health Care.

• Patient Rights in Practice

  35-44

  Mihály Petkó

  Views:

  101

  Getting medical care is normally not a voluntary decision of people. It is a necessity for people in sick conditions. Most people also have concerns regarding their personality rights as patients. The essay analyzes how patient rights are treated and exercised in Hungary from a mainly practical point of view.

• The importance of the internationalisation in the higher education

  Péter Miklós Kőmíves

  Views:

  141

  The internationalisation of the Hungarian higher education has a crucial role in the overall operation of the Hungarian higher educational system. The increasing presence of the international students at the Hungarian universities can alleviate the negative impact of the demographic decrease of the secondary students’ number in the country and can help the higher educational institutions to secure their needs in order to sustain their operation – mostly in an economic way.

  Several dilemmas emerge with the internationalisation of the higher education globally. One of these problems is the provision of the equal access to international higher education. If the equal access is not provided – and honestly this is the actual situation in most of the countries – than the differences in the social background of the students can have a great impact on the international education possibilities. Those students who have the possibility to study abroad can earn that much benefits during their education which is unavailable for those students who can only learn in their home countries. This tendency with respect to the cultural reproduction theory can widen the gap between the different social groups and so called social classes based on economic but not knowledge or talent differences.

  One of the most important elements and prerequisites of the successful functioning of the international higher education is the effective and suitable legal background. Hungary as a member state of the European Higher Education Area and of the European Union have several benefits from its memberships because this institutional and legal background will make the diplomas issued by Hungarian universities accepted in several countries. The international comparability of the knowledge incorporated by the Hungarian diplomas can be granted by the harmonisation of the different acts and the legal systems of the member states. The Hungarian results on this field are impressive.

  Based on these information we can analyse the importance of the international higher education in case of the labour market. One of the leading occupation tendencies in the 21^st century is the internationalisation of the labour market. The companies are trying to employ the best workforce available on the labour market and the lack of suitable workforce pushes them to find the suitable employees abroad – or on the domestic universities and they have much more possibilities if international students are also studying there.

• Tort Law in Germany

  Éva Dóra Fazekas

  Views:

  89

  Without abstract.

• Combatting against terrorism

  Krisztina Kovács

  Views:

  91

  In the last decades of our globalized world terrorism has become a phenomenon that implies a worldwide challenge and can hardly be prevented, and that is difficult to combat against with means of national and international law. The international terrorism in the sense as we use it nowdays has a history of only one and a half centuries, but since the appearance of concrete terrorist attacks is always changing (and of course the ideology and supplier of the different groups) there has not been any consensus yet among states or within particular international organizations how to define it. But it should be taken into consideration that attacks not only affect the state where they are executed but also the whole society and even the international order. That is why it would be essential to define it in international terms, because without an exact definition the proper defence against it can not be determined either.  

  It has to be emphasized that it does not exist a common strategy that could be adapted any time in any case. It can not be forgotten that the terrorism itself is also an answer, so its political, economical and social roots should be taken into consideration whilst choosing the best way to prevent it. The different means (primarily legal and classical ones) should be combined and used by states in strict cooperation, because these don’t substitute but complete each other. It is also important to underline that it is not enough to react upon terrorist actions and restore its harmful effects, but it is also essential to prevent it by eliminating its causes. Unfortunately, proactive strategies are not common enough - mainly because of its costs - in spite of the fact that in the long run it would be worth using them.

  It is important to act in conformity with international law, because this can legitimate the reaction after an attack. The main task for states is to elaborate an exact legal framework for it, because without global accords and without the acceptance of this policy within the nation an effective policy against terrorism cannot be realized. National criminal law should be aggravated, flow of information among intelligence services, cooperation among media and governments should be developed and it is also essential to inform the society properly and make it obvious that assistance at a terrorist attack is also to be punished. International measures should be taken in order to avoid financing of terrorist actions by preventing money-laundering. These means can be used even with certain restrictions on criminal law, but always respecting human rights either that of the victims or that of the delinquents. 

  To institutionalize international actions under the aegis of the United Nations numerous agreements were accepted, eg. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons (1973), Convention against Taking of Hostages (1979), Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999) and  some conventions were signed on the Prevention Crimes committed in aircrafts, etc. The main problem is that these accords are not signed by all member states and hence their efficiency can be questioned. Of course not only the UN try to solve this problem with international conventions, so does the EU. Its activity has considerably increased since the attacks of Madrid, because this case made two things clear: even Europe is vulnerable and well-timed attacks can even lead to political changes.

  To be able to meet the challenges that terrorism mean nowdays there are two things to emphasize: first of all a worldwide cooperation would be essential and secondly the provision of financial sources for each state so that it were able to ensure national and promote global security.

• Act on Business Advertising Activity and the protection of inherent rights under Hungarian civil law

  Tibor Kiss

  Views:

  92

  There is a significant inconsistency within the domain of enforcement of inherent rights in the Hungarian regulation. The protection of the inherent rights is based on the section 75 of Act IV of 1959 (hereinafter: „Civil Code”), which provides that inherent rights shall be observed by everyone and inherent rights are protected by law.

  The lack of consistency can be led back to the difference between the provisions of the Civil Code and Act LVIII of 1997 on Business Advertising Activity. Under Section 85 of the Civil Code inherent rights may only be enforced in person.

  There are two exceptions to the above rule laid down in the Civil Code:

  • The legal representative of an incompetent person, or the relative or conservator of a missing person whose whereabouts are unknown shall be entitled to proceed in the protection of that person's inherent rights.
  • In the case of impairment to the memory of a deceased person, the relative and/or the person having been named as the heir apparent in the will of the deceased shall be entitled to file a court action. If conduct causing defamation to a deceased person (former legal person) infringes upon the public interest, the public prosecutor shall also be entitled to enforce this inherent right.

  The Act on Business Advertising Activity provides for several general advertising prohibitions and restrictions. Under Section 4 of this act advertising may not be published if it infringes personal rights, respect for the deceased or rights related to the protection of personal data. Under Section 16 of this act advertising control proceedings may be initiated upon request or ex officio. Based on the regulation of the Act on Business Advertising Activity advertising control proceedings may be requested by any person whose rights or rightful interests, or legal status is injured by violation of any provisions relating to commercial advertising activity. If the aggrieved consumer cannot be identified, or if enforcement of the claims is inappropriate considering the number of consumers injured, administrative agencies or non-governmental organizations providing for consumer interests shall also be entitled to initiate proceedings.

  When the regulations of the Civil Code on enforcement of inherent rights are compared with that of the Act on Business Advertising Activity, it can be established that provisions of the latter act are not in compliance with the provisions of the Civil Code. On the basis of the decision No. 1270/B/1997 of the Hungarian Constitutional Court, the inconsistency is not significant, the different regulatory of the mentioned acts is not unconstitutional. I take the view that in order to achieve consistent regulation the Act on Business Advertising Activity should be modified by prohibiting the advertising control proceedings initiated ex officio in relation to the advertisings which infringe personal rights.

• False confession as a result of suggestion in the criminal process

  Balázs Elek

  Views:

  136

  Often justice would be less miscarry, if all who were about to weigh evidence had more conscious of the treachery of human memory.

  The memory ideas of a person are objective reproductions of earlier experience or are mixed up with associations and suggestions. The possibility exists that police might obtain a confession from an innocent person in a crime he had never committed. It is even possible that false confession might lead to a false conviction.

  The power of suggestion devastates memory, and this remains entirely within the limits of the normal healthy individuality. If interviewing techniques were to be assessed in terms of the police claim that they are geared to an objective reach for the truth, then they would emerge as thoroughly deficient. The progress of psychological science can not be further ignored.

• Előreláthatósági klauzula a szerződések jogában

  Andrea Csécsy

  Views:

  57

  The essay is about the clause of foreseeability in connection with damages for breach of a contract. This seems to be a constant problem throughout the history of law how and when it is reasonably to limit the amount of damages in case of breach.

  The general principle of full compensation originates in the main purpose of private law, restoring the violated financial situation. At the same time in business relations it often happens that damages occurred as consequences of breach highly exceed the contractual interest of the party and generate indirect damages independent from the violator’s influence. This is considered to be the starting point of the dilemma about restricting the damages availably for compensation.

  Full compensation and its relation to breach of a contract occurred in the Hungarian jurisprudence many times. Miklós Világhy suggested the reconsideration of full compensation in contract law in 1971. Attila Harmathy also suggested the implementation of foreseeability clause in the rules of contract law as the ‘best possible way to treat business relations between the parties’.

  Due to the historic and social differences various forms of foreseeability are known in the legal systems.

  The study examines the development of foreseeability, its first codification in the French Napoleonic Code Civil, its application in the law of the USA and some significant sentences of English courts. The first application of foreseeability was in the infamous Hadley v. Baxendale case, in which an English court worked out the meaning of contemplation rules. In the case of Victoria Laundry Ld. v. Newman Industries Ld. (1949) the court defined the meaning of foreseeability. According to the sentence of the case damages are limited to those that were foreseeable for the party at the time of entering a contract. The study also analyzes the German model of restricting damages of breach. The German theory ensures the possibility of exoneration for the violator if the other party failed to give proper information about the unusual danger of breach in the particular case. If the entitled party acted intentionally, the German law accepts exoneration. The essay demonstrates the adequate causality conception of the German law. This theory states that an act can only be the probable cause if – due to the normal and reasonable procession – it is able to cause such consequence. In our opinion foreseeability gives a stricter and much better solution of restricting damages with a more objective measurement for the obliged party on how to calculate his behavior in a certain contractual relation. The amount of risk can be predicted if the rules of damages for breach are based on foreseeability rather than adequate causality.

  The new Hungarian Civil Code plans to establish objective liability in contract law. The only exoneration can be the successful reference to unavoidable external cause. Beside this stricter liability the new Civil Code also introduce the possibility of limitation in damages, the application of foreseeability clause. This seems to be a significant preference for the obliged party. As in the Hungarian legal history foreseeability clause was never used, it is an essential question how judicature will interpret the rule in practice. In our opinion for an adequate application of the new clause it is necessary to take a closer look at the United Nations Convention on the International Sale of Goods (CISG), the Principles of European Contract Law (PECL) and the interpretation in the American and English case law. This study tries to give some help for it.

• Az orvosi tevékenység büntetőjogi szabályozásának vázlata különös tekintettel a foglalkozás körében elkövetett veszélyeztetés tényállására

  67-78

  Judit Zákány

  Views:

  103

  Without abstract

• Authority of the review of Self Government regulations by the Curia of Hungary with a Special Emphasis on case-law

  63-74

  Enikő Bene

  Views:

  54

  The Council of Self-Government Affairs of the Curia of Hungary, which was established in 2012, has the power to review judicial norms beside the Constitutional Court of Hungary in order to abolish the collision between them. The division between the issues of the collision is determined up on the fact whether the question is statutory or a constitutional. The specific interpretation of the Curia and its consistent, conceptual statements that have already been made, leads to the conclusion, that such an institution was created that is able to promote the autonomy of the legislation of self-governments in the right direction. This is the issue that I would like to focus in my paper the most, and to examine what are those most important and conceptual statements, which are also important from a practical perspective. I extended my observation particularly on the legal standards regulating the basic rules of coexistence, where I examined the standards in respect of the most common dilemmas from a case-lawpoint of view.

• Europäisches Verbrauchervertragsrecht: gemeinsame Fundamente

  Zsolt Hajnal

  Views:

  198

  Der Verbraucherschutz korrigiert durch die rechtliche Regelung, durch Ausbau eines interdisziplinieren Rechtsinstrumentsystems versichert es Rechtsschutz für die Verbraucher in schwächerer Position. Durch rechtlichen Instrumenten wird die optimale Gleichgewichtslage wiederherstellt, demnoch werden die optimalen Verhältnisse geschafft, unter denen die Verbraucher freie Kaufsentscheidungen treffen können und nach eigenen Bedürfnissen „konsumieren” können. Die modernen Rechtsysteme haben als eigenes das ideale Leitbild des Schutzes der schwächeren Partei, diesbezüglich der Schutz vom hohen Niveau der Verbraucherinteressen kann als dritte Generation der Menschenrechte begriffen werden. Also der Verbraucherschutz wurde inzwischen die Sicherung für Lebensniveau der Europabürger und dient neulich auch als Mittel erneuerter Impulze für europäische Wirtschaft zu geben.

  Ziel dieses Artikels ist zu untersuchen, ob irgendwelche Harmonisierung in Rahmen einer Rahmenrichtlinie oder Vereinheitlichung der Verbraucherrechte in Europa eigentlich verwirklich werden könnte. Vor den Feststellungen der endgültigen Konklusionen müssen wir genau anschauen ob die europäischen Verbraucherregelungen gemeinsame Wurzeln oder gemensame Instrumente verfügen. Diesmal dient es als Kerngebiet meiner Forschung.