Among the narrow-leaved Festuca taxa occurring in the Carpathian Basin, those inhabiting extremely dry lowland habitats are mainly species with a continuous sclerenchyma ring in their leaves, or in which the sclerenchyma becomes ring-shaped by the end of the vegetation period. The most characteristic representative of this group is Festuca vaginata, but recent studies have also confirmed the presence of Festuca pseudovaginata and Festuca tomanii in these habitats.
These species are of high importance for grassland management, as they are dominant components of dry steppe vegetation. In this paper, we provide a comparative and critical review of the three taxa, summarizing previous literature and presenting morphological data aimed at identifying the most reliable diagnostic characters for species delimitation. Our results indicate that the position of the fourth spikelet on both the terminal and the longest panicle branches are among the most informative morphological traits for distinguishing the species. Within the spikelets, the length of the outer glume in the second floret proved to be the most consistent and useful character, which is recommended for practical identification purposes as well.

The Festuca taxa of the Pannonian Basin are beautiful examples of environmental adaptation to specific climatic and soil conditions and genetic diversity within the plant genus. They are well adapted to grazing agriculture and summer droughts, after which their excellent regenerative capacity helps them to recover. For these reasons, and due to their vast territorial coverage, they are also of great importance to the national economy. However, in order to exploit their genetic potential, it is essential to separate the individual taxa on a genetic basis. Taking into account two important aspects, namely coping with drought and saline soils, we provide an overview below.

Pannonian sand grasslands represent a prominent nature conservation value, for the maintenance of which knowledge of appropriate grassland management practices is indispensable. Our research investigated the complex effects of a phenomenon known as fairy rings – specifically, rings formed by Agaricus xanthodermus – which transform both the soil and the vegetation. In the different zones of a 14 m diameter fairy ring, we performed detailed botanical surveys using a total of 288 quadrats, each 0.5 m×0. 5m in area. These were evaluated using Borhidi's ecological indicators and the Balázs method for estimating yield and fodder value.
The fairy ring exerts a dual, spatially distinct effect on the vegetation. Intensive nitrogen mobilisation occurred at the fungal front, leading to the rapid dominance of the nitrogen-demanding, ruderal species Elymus repens. The characteristics of this zone included a steep increase in total cover, a drastic decrease in diversity, and a decline in the vegetation's naturalness value. Moving inwards from the ring, the effect weakened; regeneration was taking place, where the fodder-valuable Poa angustifolia dominated, resulting in the highest fodder value (K-value) in the central part of the ring. However, diversity remained low here as well, due to monodominance.
In summary, it can be concluded that the A. xanthodermus fairy ring functions as an ecosystem engineer, generating significant spatial heterogeneity in the grassland. Based on our results, a comprehensive assessment of the effects of fairy rings is essential to develop sustainable management and conservation practices for Pannonian grasslands, with particular regard to the balance between forage production and biodiversity.

This review examines fairy rings in temperate grasslands and their ecological role, highlighting their occurrence in Hungary. It presents the 92 fungal species recorded in Hungary that form these structures and provides a detailed discussion of the ecological mechanisms behind ring formation, their growth rates (which vary from 7 cm to 125 cm per year depending on the species), and the various classification systems. Their ecological role is complex and dual: some species (Type 1) harm vegetation at the fungal front (e.g., through soil hydrophobicity and phytotoxic compounds), while in the inner zone of the rings, they stimulate growth and increase diversity, partly by promoting the proliferation of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. Therefore, fairy ring fungi are ecosystem engineers: they fundamentally influence nutrient cycles, soil microbial communities, plant diversity, and biomass production. Some of the compounds they produce (fairy chemicals) show remarkable potential for agricultural application. Research on fairy rings – despite being crucial for understanding the functioning of grassland ecosystems – is still insufficient. An interdisciplinary approach, the application of remote sensing technologies, and the use of mathematical modelling in future research could contribute to the protection, restoration, and climate change adaptation of grasslands.

In this summary overview, we present the findings of phytosociological surveys conducted in vegetation types subjected to goat grazing—excluding the control meadows—across seven different study sites in addition to four settlements located in Transdanubia and the North Hungarian Mountains. The areas are also evaluated from a grassland management perspective. Furthermore, we explored the potential use of two invasive species (Solidago gigantea and Calamagrostis epigeios) as goat fodder, and we included a mown meadow as a control. The primary aim was to assess the species richness and ecological value of these areas under varying levels of grazing pressure and grassland management strategies, particularly in terms of conservation and pasture use.

The most degraded plant communities were observed in Nagyréde and Kaposdada, where overgrazing had occurred. This was evident in species composition, as these areas were the least species-rich and showed significant infestation by ruderal species. In contrast, the most favorable outcomes—both for conservation and for grassland management—were found in sites that were initially mown and subsequently grazed by goats. The results suggest that vegetation types developed under light grazing pressure were more beneficial from a grazing perspective. Overall, the study indicates that a combination of light grazing and mowing is the most suitable management approach for maintaining and utilizing these semi-dry grasslands sustainably.

Additionally, both invasive species may have potential for use as fodder when harvested at appropriate phenological stages and supplemented with additional feed, although not for meat production purposes.

In this summary overview, we present the findings of phytosociological surveys conducted in vegetation types subjected to goat grazing—excluding the control meadows—across seven different study sites in addition to four settlements located in Transdanubia and the North Hungarian Mountains. The areas are also evaluated from a grassland management perspective. Furthermore, we explored the potential use of two invasive species (Solidago gigantea and Calamagrostis epigeios) as goat fodder, and we included a mown meadow as a control. The primary aim was to assess the species richness and ecological value of these areas under varying levels of grazing pressure and grassland management strategies, particularly in terms of conservation and pasture use.

The most degraded plant communities were observed in Nagyréde and Kaposdada, where overgrazing had occurred. This was evident in species composition, as these areas were the least species-rich and showed significant infestation by ruderal species. In contrast, the most favorable outcomes—both for conservation and for grassland management—were found in sites that were initially mown and subsequently grazed by goats. The results suggest that vegetation types developed under light grazing pressure were more beneficial from a grazing perspective. Overall, the study indicates that a combination of light grazing and mowing is the most suitable management approach for maintaining and utilizing these semi-dry grasslands sustainably.

Additionally, both invasive species may have potential for use as fodder when harvested at appropriate phenological stages and supplemented with additional feed, although not for meat production purposes.

From a land-use perspective, sheep grazing is primarily justified on sites of lower soil productivity. This is due to the grazing behaviour of sheep, characterised by selective feeding and close cropping. Such grazing promotes the development of a diverse vegetation structure, which is of high conservation value. However, under prolonged overgrazing, undesirable plant species may proliferate within the sward. The present review seeks to identify, in general terms, which species tend to become dominant on sheep pastures and which species are likely to spread under intensive grazing. Investigations carried out across several Hungarian landscape types yielded comparable results. Under high grazing pressure, Lolium perenne, Cynodon dactylon and Hordeum hystrix typically became dominant. By contrast, under low grazing pressure, Festuca pseudovina was generally found to prevail.