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• Criminal offences that infringe on individual freedom versus restrictions imposed during the pandemic to guarantee access to education

  12-22.

  Views:

  120

  In the study we propose as follows, we will look at differences in perception between the pandemic constraints imposed by the governmenst of countries affected by the pandemic in view of managing the pandemic and society’s perception that governments have deprived citizens of their freedom by restricting their mobility and imposing restrictions with regard to travel, including in order to attend educational activities. In some cases, the communities affected by the restrictive measures have gone further, accusing governments of the crime of “Illegal Deprivation of Freedom”, which is included by the legislator in the criminal codes of countries. We consider that the accusations brought against the authorities are unfounded, exaggerated, and thoroughly wrong. We believe that they are due to communication gaps in the public domain, the differences in perception of community members in the context of changing paradigms and the insufficient legal education, which leads to confusion between illegal deprivation of freedom and limitations or restrictions. Although, in the legislation, the articles that provide for the criminal offences relevant to the matter are included in the criminal (penal) codes, for example, in the Romanian legislation in Article 205 of the Criminal Code, with the marginal name “Offences against Individual Freedom” of Title I, which bears the marginal name “Offences against the Person”, and falls within the area of ​​interest of legal sciences, we will analyze the effects in relation to the limitations and restrictions imposed by the authorities for the management of the pandemic. To this end, on the one hand we will highlight the aspects of material criminal law necessary for the legal classification of a deed as offence of illegal deprivation of freedom, in accordance with the provisions of the Criminal Codes of Romania, Hungary, Republic of Italy, Greece, and on the other hand, we will present some aspects regarding the management of the coronavirus crisis in the area of ​​education.

• Ítélkezési állandók és vitás kérdések az erkölcsi kártérítés újabb magyar joggyakorlatában

  Views:

  46

  Since 1992, date of Constitutional Court’s decision No. 34/1992, certain rules cannot be found in Hungarian Civil Code. There is only a part of a sentence that gives right to any injured person to claim damages in case of personal injuries. More than 10 years after the cassation we are able to look through the legal practice in connection with damages for non-pecuniary loss. The recent re-codifying process plans a brand new institution to substitute and follow damages for non pecuniary loss: pain award. To establish a decent regulation of pain award, jurisdiction of the last decade cannot be neglected. This essay aims to gather typical and crystallized methods of judgements in certain cases, which could be seen as essential and accepted unwritten rules of jurisdiction concerning this field of damages.

  One of the most difficult problems to solve is the question of amount. This field of damages for non-pecuniary loss is always problematic, because all of the cases are different. Although there are similarities between cases if we examine just damages themselves, but due to the difference of human personality it is almost impossible to give exact phrases and rules to help our judges. We can say that highest amounts are generated by assaults against physical integrity and life. Examination during a legal procedure concentrates on the stress caused by the injury, number of injured rights, age of the injured person and the durability of the harm. If the injured person contributed to the injury, it generates reduced amount of damages.

  Method of compensation is really simple for the first time. Hungarian legal system knows two different types for the method of damages: in kind or in money. Former one is inapplicable for non-pecuniary losses. If we compensate in money, there are two solutions: injured person can get the whole sum immediately or we can choose allowance as well. The adaptation of allowance is rather small in Hungary, in spite of the advantages this legal institution could offer. It does not mean res iudicata, so it is flexible and offers opportunity to adjust to changed circumstances in the future: both duration and amount of allowance could be changed.

  It is an interesting question whether personal circumstances of the misdoer could be examined when calculating the amount of allowance. The answer is not unambiguous. Civil law focuses on compensation for the injured party, not the punishment of the misdoer. In spite of this essential lemma, it is necessary to take into account the solvency of the defendant, if we want the plaintiff to get the adjudged amount really.

  Youth is not the only reason of allowance, sometimes old age could be a well-based legal ground for application of this method of compensation as well. It is really important to examine the personal circumstances of the injured party to choose between these two methods: which one serves the aim of compensation, moderation of lost joy of life the most.

  Civil Code precludes the possibility to apply both methods together for the same plaintiff. In my opinion the solution of German Civil Code (BGB) should be considered. BGB allows both methods together. It means that possibilities could be wider and fit better to the actual case and its circumstances.

   Although obligation of damages has two parties traditionally, in a legal procedure of damages for non-pecuniary loss this bipolar situation can be proven false. On the part of the misdoer it is an interesting question what kind of damages can be blamed the state. In Hungary we can meet rules order the responsibility of the state in the field of medical damages or damages for unlawful arrest and illegal imprisonment. Amounts of damages are the highest in these situations.

  On the part of the injured person an often argued problem the position of secondary victims’ claims. These claims are always problematic, because personality rights belong closely to the person himself and there is no possibility to inherit them. Hungarian Civil Code admits compensation for relatives only in case of injuring reputation of a dead person. There are several decisions in which courts admit these claims on the ground of their sui generis base. It is a decent solution, but because of the uneven jurisdiction it needs codifying.

  We can say that there are a lot of jurisdictional constants in Hungary in connection with damages for non-pecuniary loss. These are easy to collect and most of them are able to be codified in a strictly non-taxative style. But this examination showed that doubtful questions can also be found in Hungary especially the application of allowance, claims of secondary victims. To arrange these problems, starting point should be jurisdiction itself.

• Legislative Processes and ICT

  Views:

  96

  In the first part of our work, we described the judgment of quality legislation in Hungary. Based on the standpoint of outstanding practitioners of domestic jurisprudence, we presented the conceptual definitions of quality legislation together with their content elements, stating that quality legislation is a constantly changing "legal category", the periodic review of which is justified.

  In the second part of our work, we gave an overview of the general role of ICT in the human community, which similarly to quality legislation, constantly changes, and permanently increases and evolves.

  In the final part of the study, we briefly outlined the role of ICT in legislation (including some examples of foreign states) and the most recently applied system in Hungary, i.e. IJR.

• A fizetési meghagyás kibocsátása iránti kérelmek közjegyzői vizsgálata

  14-20

  Views:

  109

  2010 marked the opening of a new chapter inthe more than 120 years history of the Hungarian order for payment procedure. Breaking with the Hungarian traditions, the notaries became competent to carry out these procedures instead of courts. The Hungarian Chamber of Civil Law Notaries established an accessible web-based computerised system for support of procedures. The registration of requests, the assignment of cases to notaries and the administrative handling of cases are carried out through this electronic network. The legislator’s aims when modified the regulation of this legal instrument was to reduce the duration of order for payment procedures and the workload of courts. In this paper I give an overview of the content of order for payment requests and of the practical experience of the notaries in connection with the examination of requests.

• Az elítéltek vagy egyéb jogcímen fogvatartottak alapvető jogai sértő elhelyezési körülmények miatti sérelemdíj iránti igények joggyakorlata

  49-62

  Views:

  278

  A dolgozat vizsgálódásának fókuszába eső kérdéskör az elítéltek vagy egyéb jogcímen fogvatartottak alapvető jogait sértő elhelyezési körülmények miatti sérelemdíj iránti igények joggyakorlata. Ezzel összefüggésben a taglalt téma jellegéből fakadóan kettős kutatási kérdés került megfogalmazásra. Az első polgári jogi jellegű, s arra irányul, hogy a joggyakorlatban milyen felperesi, alperesi és bírósági attitűdök, tendenciák jelennek meg az elhelyezési körülményekkel összefüggő sérelemdíj kapcsán. A második a büntetés-végrehajtás tárgykörét érinti, s elválaszthatatlanul következik az elsőből: a bírói gyakorlatból milyen, a magyar büntetés-végrehajtási körülményeket jellemző sajátosságok tárhatóak fel. Ezek megválaszolása empirikus kutatásmódszertant igényel. Ennek megfelelően 91 darab 2014 és 2020 közötti ítéletet dolgoztam fel átfogó jelleggel. Ez nem jelent mást, minthogy a dolgozat bemutatja a sérelemdíj jogintézménye szempontjából releváns teljes időszakot, azaz a felperesi, alperesi és bírósági karakterisztikák nemcsak pontszerűen, hanem fejlődési ívükben kerülnek ismertetésre. Dolgozatomban először a felperesi kereseteket taglalom: részletezem, hogy mire irányul a kereseti kérelmük, melyik személyiségi jogaikat vélik sérülni, illetve milyen létbeli jelenségekre alapozzák a jogsértést. Második pontként vizsgálom az alperesi ellenkérelmeket illetően, hogy a büntetés-végrehajtási intézetek milyen jogi érvekkel kívánják alátámasztani, hogy nem követtek el jogsértést, vagy hogy velük szemben sérelemdíj kiszabására nincs lehetőség. Ezek után térek rá a bírói gyakorlat vizsgálatára. Először azt részletezem, hogy a bíróságok miként kezelik a megállapítási kereseteket, vagyis a jogsértés meg- vagy meg nem történtének kérdését. Majd bemutatom a marasztalási kereseteket, amelyek kapcsán a bíróságok szerint releváns felelősségi rezsimet, illetve az annak megfelelő részkövetelményeket taglalom. Ezek után kitérek a sérelemdíj és az elhelyezési körülményekkel összefüggő kártalanítás mátrixára, bemutatom a két jogintézmény viszonyrendszerét és az egyes elhatárolási pontokat. Végül sor kerül a kutatási kérdések megválaszolására. A polgári jogi kérdés kapcsán egy ideális modellt vázolok fel, amelyben az egyes eljárási szereplők megfelelő hivatkozásokat tesznek és döntéseket hoznak. Ezek révén a felperes biztosítani tudja, hogy a sérelmei miatt a jogsértést megállapítsák, valamint számára sérelemdíjat ítéljenek meg. Az alperes a modell követésével elérheti, hogy a megítélt sérelemdíj összege minél kisebb legyen, a bíróság pedig helyes dogmatikai alapokra helyezkedhet. A büntetés-végrehajtási kérdés kapcsán pedig megoldási javaslatokkal élek, amik mentén felszámolhatóak lennének az alapvető jogokat sértő elhelyezési körülmények.

• A hagyatéki eljárás alapjai és lefolytatása, különös tekintettel a feladatok megoszlására az eljárás során, valamint a jogorvoslat egyes lehetőségeire

  22-31

  Views:

  103

  As the title suggest, the study intends to provide a summarized overview on the regulation of probate proceeding. The legal nature of out-of-court proceeding and the various stages of the procedure are briefly presented in this study. The procedural steprelated to the task of inventory taking and each stage of the proceeding related to the notary public are explained too. Finally, the study includes an overview of the available remedies (like the certain aspects of appeal and the possibility of retrial) and the basic rules on enforcement of inheritance claims.

• A dohányreklámok szabályozásának változásai a magyar jogban

  Views:

  43

  Since the change of the regime the economic role of advertisements has changed significantly. Advertising forms a considerable part of economic activities, the cost of which constitute a growing portion of the expenses of a given enterprise. The mass-appearance of advertisements has altered the relationship between consumers and advertisers, it has restructured consumption habits and the importance of advertising in media.

  The most significant modification of the Hungarian Advertising Act occurred by (Act I of 2001), which was in large passed with the consent of the advertising profession. The modification introduced the concept of deceptive advertisements, apparent comparative advertisements and special offers. Comparative advertisements were also regulated in a satisfactory way. However, several legal institutions were introduced as well, which should have been included in competition law. In the last two decades actions against unlawful advertisements were largely based on competition law, which restricts advertising activities violating fair competition in general. Advertising Decree and later the Advertising Act regulated the restriction of advertisements of certain goods and services, or defined the restrictions on certain advertising activities. Due to the modification, the role of Competition Act became less significant, since Advertising Act also contains most prohibitions on advertising activities that were defined in the Competition Act. In addition, in the case of violation of regulations on deceptive and comparative advertisements, Advertising Act denoted the Bureau of Competition and the court as chief acting powers, whereas the violation of rules on apparent comparative advertisements falls in the scope of the Consumer Protection Authority.

  What is more, the (Act I of 2001) “smuggled” the entire prohibition of tobacco advertisements into the Advertising Act, which totally contradicted with the opinion of advertising profession. Thus Hungary, similarly to France, joined the strictest practice in this question. It is also disputable whether such restrictions promote the fight against smoking, and it was certainly disadvantageous that legislation decided in the question without involving the profession, for which there had been no precedents so far.

• A kommentekért való felelősség bírói gyakorlatának evolúciója

  39-49

  Views:

  35

  The article focuses on the examination of the judicial practice related to the liability for reader’s comments. Comments have become an important instrument for internet communication and expression, however they also cause specific legal problems.

  Internet Content Providers (ICP) have offered such content so far, disclosure of which was the result of editorial’s decision, but now they play a role in the disclosure of such contents, that they do not have direct contact with.

  The examination of liability for comments is further complicated by the features of the online environment, because the courts shall have to overcome the problems of the scheme of special definitions.

  Courts have failed as yet to provide a satisfactory solution for the problem: who shall remain liable for the infringements appearing in anonymous reader’s contents? Therefore the article is an attempt to present the development of the judicial practice from the beginning to the current opinion appearing these days.

• A fogyasztói adásvétel egyes kérdéseinek szabályozása és joggyakorlata Romániában

  85-117.

  Views:

  101

  -

• A bírói függetlenség a társadalmi viszonyrendszerben és a jogállamiság eszméje

  9-13

  Views:

  70

  Absztrakt nélkül.

• A munkabérfizetés és munkabérvédelem alapvető kérdései a magyar munkajogi szabályozásban és joggyakorlatban

  27-37

  Views:

  29

  The aim of my publication is to scrutinise the Hungarian rules concerning the protection of wages and concluding how effectively they serve the social interests of employees. Furthermore, I researched if the regulation is efficient and consistent enough to protect the employees in point of the compensation for work.

  During the research, I was examining the efficiency of the protection of the employees and their salaries in practice. The other question was whether the current regulation is satisfactory enough to provide the main purposes. In order to answer these questions I was analysing the theoretical dimension and the judicial practice as well.

  I concluded that even if there are some incompleteness and inconsistency in the Hungarian labour law, the regulation seems appropriate and rational concerning the interests of the employees. In my opinion, the social function of labour law serves the employees’ interests enough to give them a decent standard of living.

• A nyilvános gyakorlatbavétel mint újdonságrontó körülmény eredete a magyar szabadalmi jogban

  Views:

  59

  It was obvious at the creation of the 37^th Act of 1895 on the patent rights of inventions, that the protection of patents is a subjective right based on objective conditions, and in connection to this, the discretionality of both the monarch and any other state organizations. For the purposes of this act, the requirements of petantibility were: novelity; invetnion; susceptible of industrial application. Some of these criteria the article is presented the novelity, especially the case of publicly used. Under the first patent act, any new invetion capebla of being used industrialy can be patented, except medicines, food for men and animals, and chemical products, and if the Goverment opposes, warlike inventions. An invention was new, if it had not been published in print anywhere, or publicly worked, or patented by others in the realm. As a result the study is presented the evolituon of „publicly used” from the first patent act by the end of the second world war.

• A fellebbezés elintézése a harmadfokú büntetőeljárásban

  120-137

  Views:

  62

  The questions of remedy are in close relations with the legal force. The legal force of the
  clinching decisions represents the final, irreversible decision about the demand of penal law,
  which decision is a guideline and undeniably binding for all, and cannot be attacked with an
  ordinary appeal.
  The legal force of other decisions with the capacity to have legal force defines a decision
  which is final, irreversible, a guideline for all, obligatory (independent of executability) and
  cannot be attacked with an appeal.
  Furthermore, there are the decisions with formal legal force, the legal force of which stands
  only for not being appealable.
  A valid decision can only be made about the factual and legal basis of criminal responsibility
  by the court that is entitled and obligated to do it, that is, only the court has a right during
  criminal procedure to decide whether there was a crime or not, and if yes, who committed it.
  In relation to this, the question of material legal force can only regard the constituted charge
  and the act in consideration, when the court makes a permanent decision about the demand of
  penal law, in the framework of the substantive judging of the act that became the object of
  prosecution.
  Lodging an appeal on legal grounds shall be governed by the provisions set forth in Chapter
  XV of the Criminal procedure Act. The judgement of the court of second instance may be
  appealed at the court of appeal. The appeal against the judgement of the court of second
  instance may involve any of the dispositions therein or exclusively the justification thereof.
  An appeal may be lodged for legal or factual reasons. An appeal suspends the part of the judgement to become final which is to be reviewed by the court of appeal owing to the appeal.
  The third remedy is allowed only in cases where the first and second instance decision is
  absolutely different in the question of guilty.

• Közigazgatási szervezési elvek érvényesülése a közoktatási igazgatásban

  74-84.

  Views:

  111

  1990 után az állami oktatási intézményeket a helyi önkormányzatok tartották fenn és ellenőrizték. Ez az időszak a decentralizáció korszaka volt, melynek előnyeit és hátrányait vizsgálom a tanulmányban. 2011 után volt egyfajta jogalkotási decentralizáció, amely után az oktatásnak működési szerepe volt vagy lehetett volna, de az állami felelősséggé vált. Az állam mint volt ágazati koordinátor, ezt követően a közhatalmi hatósága mellett fenntartói szerepet vállalt.

  Az adminisztráció két alrendszerének két alapvető változása történt 1990-es megalakulása óta, de főleg 2010 után. Ezek részben strukturális jellegűek voltak, több lépcsőben érintették az államszervezetet, majd a központi integrációt és az önkormányzatok újraszabályozásához kapcsolódó változásokat, tükrözve az állam szerepének módosulását, a Neoweber állameszmék kibővülését és a modernizációt.

  Ezen tényezők egy részét nemzetközi hatások generálták, de a magyar alapelvek is szerepet játszottak. Ez a tanulmány azt elemzi, hogy a részleges feltételek hogyan tükröződnek az oktatásigazgatásban, hogyan követték az igazgatási ágak az általános tendenciákat. Azt is megvizsgálom, hogy mennyire volt sikeres ezeket a szerepeket együtt kezelni és bizonyos pontokon szétválasztani.

• A zálogjog és a hitelbiztosítéki nyilvántartás

  15-26

  Views:

  129

  Analyzing th esystem of mortgage we must reach back to the Roman Law. At that era it had been possible to pledge liabilities, rights and moreover aggregated asset, property. Mortgage is a long term institute of Hungarian Private Law as well. Paragraphs 251 – 269 of Act IV of 1959 on the Civil Code of the Republic of Hungary regulates mortgage in the Law of Obligations, placed among collaterals. In the last two decades the old Civil Code of the Republic of Hungary has been modified twice. Act V of 2013on the Civil Code of the Republic of Hungary weakens but definitely rewritten the principles of lending. Regulation of mortgage and the system of chattel mortgage registry has significantly changed. Several novelty has been introduced therefore the system of chattel mortgage registry was reformed too. Detailed regulations of credit guarantee registry in Act CCXXI of 2013 and Act 18/2014. (III. 13.) KIM has also been accepted correspondingly to the previous changes.

• A Digitális Egységes Piaci Stratégia szerződési jogi hatásai a magyar polgári jogra

  108-120

  Views:

  111

  The necessity of framing contract law fulfilling the expectations of the digital era is among the main purposes of the Digital Single Market Strategy, that has been introduced by the European Committe in 2015. Within the Strategy two directive proposals have been presented: the directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on certain aspects concerning contracts for the supply of digital content and the directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on certain aspects concerning contracts for the online and other distance sales of goods. These include the concept of conformity with the contract, the meaning of which raises several questions to be answered regarding the Hungarian legal system.

  My treatise focuses on the investigation of the criteria of conformity with the contract with special regard to the definiton of the directive proposals. In the first place I outline the elements of conformity with the contract, then I attempt to create a comprehensive definition of it. Thereafter I analyse the rules of the Hungarian Civil Code that are connected to the category of the conformity. Furthermore, I investigate the necessity of the integration of the conformity with the contract into the the Hungarian civil law. Finally, I present a future legislative concept that could be regarded as a possible way of adaptation of this legal category.

• Änderungen und Fragmentierung des ungarischen Erbrechts

  81-103

  Tibor Kiss

  Views:

  187

  Das Erbrecht ist im ungarischen Grundgesetz verankert, und die detaillierten materiellen Vorschriften sind im Siebten Buch des ungarischen Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuchs festgelegt. In den letzten Jahren hat der Gesetzgeber neben dem Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch auch in anderen Gesetzen materielle Vorschriften zur Erbfolge eingeführt. Gemäß dem Gesetz über die eingetragene Lebenspartnerschaften, gelten die für Ehegatten geltenden Vorschriften auch für eingetragene Lebenspartner. Dies bedeutet, dass der eingetragene Lebenspartner auch gesetzlicher Erbe ist. Die besonderen Regeln für den Eigentumserwerb an land- und forstwirtschaftlichen Grundstücken (Ackerboden) durch eine gewillkürte Erbfolge sind in dem Gesetz über den Landverkehr(Gesetz CXXII von 2013) festgelegt. Am 1. Januar 2023 wird ein neues Gesetz in Kraft treten (Gesetz CXLIII von 2021), das die erbrechtlichen Bestimmungen des Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuches im Falle der gemeinsamen Rechtsnachfolge von ungeteiltem Miteigentum an landwirtschaftlichen Grundstücken durch mehrere Erben ergänzen wird.

  Die Bestimmung eines staatlichen Organs, das den Staat in Erbrechtsverhältnissen vertritt, ist in einer gesonderten Ministerialverordnung vorgesehen. In dem vorliegenden Schreiben wird analysiert, wie all diese komplexen und verstreuten Vorschriften die Rechtsanwendung erschweren und die zügige Durchführung von Nachlassverfahren behindern. Das vorliegende Schreiben kritisiert die zersplitterte Regelung und schlägt vor, die Vorschriften der einzelnen Gesetze in das  Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch zu integrieren, da dies zu einer effizienteren Rechtsanwendung beitragen könnte.

• A munkajog területén megvalósuló egyenlő bánásmód követelménye, valamint megsértésének módjai az Európai Bíróság és a magyar bírói gyakorlat tükrében

  Views:

  221

  Employment and occupation are crucial to ensuring equal opportunities for all and in large measure contribute to the full participation of citizens in economic, social and culture life. However, many cases of discrimination have been identified in the field of employment and the labour market.

  In this study I try to examine how the equal treatment works in the EU Law and Hungarian national law, and I try to present the case-law of the European Court of Justice and the Hungarian Courts in this area. The first part of the study deals with the definition of key concepts (direct discrimination, indirect discrimination, harassment), and include its legal background – with respect to the directives of the European Parliament and the Council, and the Hungarian legislation. The second part tries to describe the legal concept of indirect discrimination, mentioned as justification (statutory derogation, objective justification). And finally I try to present the special burden of proof, which is used in discrimination cases.

• A szennyező fizet elvének megjelenése a magyar polgári jogban, különös tekintettel a veszélyes üzemi felelősség kérdéseire

  89-106

  Views:

  71

  The polluter pays principle is one of the basic principles of international environmental law
  mentioned directly firstly only in 1972, however the principle were declared in 1929 in the
  well-known Trail Smelter Case. The polluter pays is an economical principle, and in the
  meaning of this principle the costs of pollution shall be shared between industrial companies
  and consumers. Taking into consideration that after applying this principle price of products
  will be higher than before, industrial companies shall reduce their pollution in the interest of
  their (and their products’) competitiveness. Seeing the development of the principle in EU
  level, the polluter pays were mentioned first time in the first „programme of action of the
  European Communities on the environment” adopted in 1973. However it is questionable
  what polluter, pollution, obligation of polluter and costs of pollution mean exactly, and for
  this reason this principle cannot be applied automatically.
  In this study I try to examine how the polluter pays principle works in the Hungarian national
  law, especially in the Hungarian Civil Code. For this reason I examine the applicability of
  Article 345 of the Hungarian Civil Code („Damages Originating from Hazardous
  Operations”), with special regard to the case-law of the Hungarian civil courts. I also try to
  introduce the possibilities and obligations of the public prosecutor in environmental issues.