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• The essential rights of the local governments in the aspect of Financial Law

  Gabriella Csűrös

  Views:

  64

  In my study I deal with the connection between the local governments and the Constitution in the aspect of Financial Law.

  The local governments’ essential rights have been laid down  in the Constitution in a separate (IX.) chapter. The defence of the local governments is different from the defence of fundamental human rights. The latter has the test of necessity and proportionality. The local governments’ constitutional rights can be restricted until the infringement of its fundamental contents.

  I examined the rights of the local governments connected with the Financial Law, so I was engaged mainly in the financial support of it and the right of property and tax assessment. The Constitutional regulation of the financial support is most unique. The difference is that this paragraph (44/A. § (1) c) is not a rule of competence and jurisdiction however an obligation for the state to guarantee the self income and the proper state support to the local governments. The most important own sources are the taxes, which are necessary to discharge the duties. The authority to issue taxes derives from the Constitution - 70/I. § and 44/A. § (1) d. These paragraphs  prescribes that every natural and legal person must contribute to rates and taxes depend on their income and estate.

  The local governments may issue taxes within the framework of law, but their legislation is wide-ranging within it, for this reason there are a lot of instructive judgements of the Constitutional Court.

• Non-competition agreement

  20-28

  Alex Ember

  Views:

  215

  The “agreement on non-competition” is essentially the extension of the protection of the basic economic interest of the employer. While during the employment relationship several labor law provisions protect the interest of both parties, the “agreement on non-competition” is designed to protect the employer’s interests after the termination of the relationship. This means – in return for financial compensation – the former employee needs to refrain from any kind of business competition against his/her former employer. This necessarily involves financial compensation and may have several restrictions, such business or geographical area or time.

   

  The previous Labor Code did not specify for detailed regulation of the issue and the law remained rather vague. It merely referred to the fact that parties – based on their own free will – may enter into such agreement. However the new Labor Code contains explicit regulations under title XVIII of the Act as “Particular Agreements Related to Employment”.

   

  The “agreement on non-competition” belongs to the field of employment law. Unlike the previous Labor Code that categorized this possible agreement as of purely civil law in nature, the new Labor Code declares it to belong under the scope of the Labor Code. The previous regulation even ordered the provisions of the Civil Code to be applied to such agreements however the new legislation brought a conceptual change.

   

  The currently effective regulation provides for a 2-year limitation on such conduct on the employee’s part that would create competition with the employer. The exact amount of the consideration payable for this obligation remains to be decided by the parties however the Labor Code suggests that it shall be based on how difficult the applied restrictions make it for the employee to find another job with his qualifications and experience. As a basic limit the law provides that the amount shall not be less than one-third of the base wage payable for the same period of time.

   

  The “agreement on non-competition” is not to be confused with similar legal institutions. The paper points out two close similarities in the legal system. One being the employee’s obligation of confidentiality; this prevails after termination of the employment relationship as well without any time or similar restrictions and even without any financial compensation. The other one is the so called “non-compete” agreement from the field of competition law. This is applicable after takeovers where the seller shall refrain from engaging into business in the same area as the buyer.

   

  In the field of labor law the time period for the “agreement on non-competition” is up to the agreement of the parties however the new law invokes an upper limit of two years that is following the termination of the employment relationship. This is a decrease from the previous regulation that provided for a period of three years. The agreement can be modified by the consent of both parties just like the employment contract or civil law agreements.

   

  In case of violation of the agreement three cases are to be analyzed. The first is the case of the employee breaching the provisions of the contract. In this case the employee is liable for damages towards his/her former employer. The provisions of the new Civil Code and those of the Labor Code are to be applied to the damages. In the second case the employer may request an injunction to prohibit the employee from any conduct breaching the agreement while the third case involves the breach of the agreement on the employee’s part for which the rules of the Civil Code and the Labor Code are to be applied as well.

• Controversial Elements of Civil Law in Local Government Regulations

  2-11

  Zsuzsanna Árva

  Judit Szabó

  Views:

  119

  Local governments may establish legal relationships governed by civil law in numerous ways, for example, through the creation of associations, various institutional agreements or they can also do so by means of enacting regulations. In line with the stipulations of the Fundamental Law of Hungary, local governments may adopt regulations on two legal bases: if authorized by law or if they want to regulate a local public affair; however, the regulation may not contradict any higher form of legislation. While in the first case it is not only the right but also the obligation of local governments to enact regulations that can even be sanctioned, in the second case it is almost completely optional. The scope of public affairs regulated by local governments is rather broad. While the smaller local governments typically limit their activities to the regulation of the most urgent matters, the larger local governments enact regulations in a wide range of issues also due to the volume of their responsibilities. In many instances a part of these regulations does not remain within the framework of supremacy but also includes numerous elements of civil law. These could include matters related to parking or municipal housing, as well as problems in connection with public services. Norms regulating peaceful public coexistence represent a separate subject area as in many cases they wish to regulate legal relationships pertaining to privacy. In the case of the latter issue, the clause stating that the local regulations shall not contradict any higher form of law is especially central, as it necessitates the extensive knowledge of civil and in some cases even constitutional law to ensure that such a regulation is enacted that fully complies with the laws.

  This paper introduces and examines those local government regulations that include elements of civil law also and which typically cause problems, with special emphasis on the rules of peaceful public coexistence. Some of these problems are revealed within the scope of legal supervision practiced over local governments, while in other cases the body reviewing the regulation acts in response to citizens’ initiatives.

• Le présent et le futur de la réparation dans la procédure pénale hogroise

  Ágnes Tarr

  Views:

  66

  A la deuxième moitié du XX ième siècle la victime a commancé á jouer un rôle important de nouveau dans les procédures pénales. Les legislateurs veulent assurer les droit de la victime et garantir qu’elle soit indemnisée le plus tôt possible et pour que tout le monde soit content du résultat.Ce sont les cadres de la juridiction restaurative qui en assurent les possibilités.

  Dans cet essai premièrement je présente le cadre de la constitution de partie civile dans la législation hongroise. C’est une procédure très intéressante parce qu’il faut appliquer d’un côté le droit civil et la procédure civile et de l’autre le drot pénal et la procédure pénale dans le cadre de la juridiction pénale (dans une procédure).

  J’ai analysé le terme de la victime, les règle appliquables et les décisions du juge. J’ai constaté qu’en Hongrie les tribunaux correctionnels ne délibèrent pas les décisions sur le fond dans les cas de partie civile mais ils renvoient les affaires devant les tribunaux civils.

  Ensuite, je présente les institution juridique hongroise qui vise á l’entremise dans la procédure pénale. On peut trouver deux institution juridique en vigeur. En premièr lieu il faut mentionner que dans les cadres de la procédure par constitution de partie civil (où la victime soutient l’accuation) il existe une audition personnelles des parties où le but est donc l’arrangement des parties.

  Il y a une autre institution juridique qui s’appelle l’ajournement de la mise en accusation. On peut l’appliquer si la peine ne mérite pas de trois ans de prison et il y a beaucop de circonstances atténuantes, le procureur peut décider l’ajournement de la mise en accusation d’une au deux ans. On peut prévoir différentes obligations et règlements du comportement pour le prévenu. Par example on peut prévoir de dédommager la victime avec l ‘accord des parties. J’ai examiné cette institution juridique et son efficacité dans la pratique aussi.

  Troisièmement j’ai analysé une institution juridique qui entrera en vigeur le 1er janvier 2007. C’est la médiation pénale. Il y a un cadre de décision européen (2001/220/IB) qui préconise aux États memnbres d’introduire la médiation pénale. Pour pouvoir appliquer cette institution juridique il faut modifier le Code Pénale et la loi de la procédure pénale. C’est le procureur qui aura le droit de la suspension du procès pour maximum six mois et renvoyer l’affaire devant un méditeur. Cette procédure devant le médiateur sera regie par une loi d’exeption.( Il y a déja une projet de la loi). Je présente les problèmes en relation la médiation pénale. En résumé on peut dire que la mise en place et la régulation de la médiation demandent du temps et de l’énergie. Je statue qu’il faut attendre beaucoup de temps en Hongrie pour que l’opinion publique et les justiciables acceptent et appliquent avec efficacité la médiation pénale.

• Criminal Legislation against Bribery in the People’s Republic of China: Formation, Evolution and Evaluation

  Xiaoping Qian

  Views:

  72

  A Kínai Népköztársaság 1949 októberi megalakulásától kezdődően a modern büntető jogalkotás fejlődése a vesztegetéssel kapcsolatosan hosszú fejlődésen ment keresztül a jelenlegi antikorrupciós rendszerig.

  Amiatt, hogy szoros kapcsolat van a vesztegetési bűncselekmények és a gazdasági modell között, a gazdasági rendszer változása különböző büntetőjogi válaszokat igényel a vesztegetéssel kapcsolatban is.

  A tervgazdaság időszakában teljesen más a vesztegetések természete, mint az átmenet és a piacgazdaság alatt.

  A tanulmány a büntető jogszabályok változását mutatja be gazdasági, társadalmi környezet változásainak összefüggésében napjainkig a lehetséges továbbfejlődés ismertetésével. Ennek során nemzetközi szerződések hivatkozásával még tágabb összefüggéseiben mutatja be a kérdéskört, miközben olyan kérdések is felmerülnek, mint a halálbüntetés lehetősége.

• The role of de facto separation in the divorce law of EU Member States

  41-56

  Edit Hadházi

  Views:

  105

  De facto separation (means spouses are living apart) as the most spectacular sign of the irretrievable breakdown of a marriage is a legally relevant fact in the (national) divorce law of the most European Union Member States. However, there are notable differences in the regulatory methods used and how much importance is attached to it. There are Member States where the quantity and quality of the separation is regulated at the legislative level, either as an explicit precondition for divorce or as a legal circumstance orienting the judge, and there are Member States where separation plays a role solely or mostly in the process of the application of the law. My hypothesis is that the fact of separation is such a common intersection of the divorce law of the EU Member States that the legal attitudes taken by them in this regard require a comparative analysis of the law. The aim of this paper is to examine that how the EU Member States incorporate the fact of separation into their divorce law, to classify the regulation methods ’from legislation to application', and to draw the final conclusions in a summary.

• Questions around prescription by title

  81-89

  Tucsek Máté

  Views:

  384

  In this paper I am willing to introduce different aspects of the new institution of the Hungarian civil law, the so-called prescription by title. This young way of acquiring property was a novelty in the field of law and jurisprudence, and a novelty for entities as well. The law of property contains the most important and fundamental rules of private law, this is the reason why it is always ultimately important that the legislator and the exact purpose of the legislation has to be as clearly defined as possible, since this is what ensures the security of property transactions and guarantees the freedom and protection of one of the most ancient social institutions, property. By its unique nature, prescription has always been the subject of legal disputes, thus the arguments above are cumulative.

  The aim of this paper is to present the regulation of prescription by title, its dogmatic features, draw parallels with its ancestor in Hungarian legal history and an unusual foreign example, examine some relevant aspects of judicial practice and finally attempt to compose a possible  alternative regulatory technique.

• The evaulation of practical significance of the CISG and UPICC

  21-40

  Sándor Boros

  Views:

  189

  The main aim of the present study is to determine the real practical relevant and volume through the evaulation the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) and the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts (UPICC). In order to achive the mentioned aims, the study applies the results of the available empirical studies regarding to the CISG, whilst regarding to the UPICC, the study applies the available case law abstracts. In case of the Vienna Convention, it can be obviously stated that, the volume of practical application of the CISG is rather moderate, lags behind the success that the legal literature attributes to it, whilst under the results of revision the available case law in connection with the UPICC, can be declared that, the UNIDROIT Principles mainly promotes the interpretation and completion of the national law and also the international legal instruments, the contracting partie’s intend to apply firstly the UPICC as substantial law, is rather low. Furthermore the study also pay attention the CISG and the UPICC influence to the national law legislation, and declares that, both legal instruments have a huge impact to the national law making. 

• Consumer insolvency in the European Union

  153-163

  Nikolett Zoványi

  Views:

  81

  Almost all modern civil legal systems respect property rights as a privileged and fundamental right, which means the property rights of individuals cannot be restricted or taken away without due process of law. In the case of insolvency proceedings, the person's right to property is violated, as the debtor is deprived of this right, at least partially. In such situations, the property rights of the debtor and the creditor are strained against each other, even to such level that the debtor's livelihood and alimentation is threatened by the satisfaction of the creditor's demands. During insolvency proceedings, we should restore the property rights relationship that was broken on the part of the creditor as a result of the debtor's behavior at the expense of the debtor's assets, ensuring that the debtor's interests are also protected, and that the proceedings take into account the interests of both parties. National lawmakers should, therefore, take several aspects into account to create the material and procedural legislation on the basis of which property of private individuals can also be subject to insolvency proceedings. Lawmakers should act in an environment where, due to the impact of globalization, it is no longer evident that the debtor and the creditor are citizens of the same country. This is the reason it is also important to examine how the European Union regulates insolvency proceedings in the case of consumer over-indebtedness in a manner that crosses national borders and still remains inside the Union.

• Enforcement of administrative organization principles in public education administration

  74-84.

  Vilmos Csongor László

  Views:

  126

  After 1990 public educational institutions were maintained and controlled by local governments. This period was the era of decentralization. I am going to examine it in a later parts of my thesis with regard to all of its advantages and disadvantages. After 2011 there was a kind of decentralization by legislation after which it had or could have had an operating role but education became state responsibilities. The state as former branch coordinator thereafter took the role of maintainer besides of its public power authority.

  There have been two crucial changes of two subsystems of administration since its formation in 1990 but mainly after 2010. These changes were partially structural, affecting state organization in several steps then those affecting central integration and the reregulation of local governments reflecting the change in the role of the state and the expansion of Neoweber state ideas and recentralisation.

  Some of these factors were generated by international effects but Hungarian principles also played a role as the hurried and faulty system of task completion was formed in local governments.

  This study analysing how partial conditions are reflected in education administration, how the administration branches followed general tendencies or somehow compared to general changes in public administration. I am also examining how successful it was to deal with these roles together and separate them at certain points.

• The Appearance, Development, and Reception of Danger to Society in Hungarian Criminal Law

  105-120

  Ádám Szemán

  Views:

  153

  The concept of danger to society is perhaps the most controversial element of the Criminal Code's definition of crime. This concept plays a prominent role in the determination of criminal liability in domestic criminal law. In the 20th century, its necessity in our Criminal Code, which was in force at the time, was the subject of debate among jurists of repute in the field of criminal law.

  In the socialist criminal law of the pre-communist era, the concept of danger to society was used to express the 'class nature' of criminal law. After the 1990s, this concept - in the science of criminal law, in legislation and in the application of law as well - was cleared of the content elements adopted from Soviet law to serve the aims of party-state policy. Nowadays, the definition of danger to society is so devoid of ideological, party-political connotations that it is regarded by a significant number of legal scholars in the field of criminal law and even by case law as the conceptual equivalent of material illegality, taken from German legal theory (ÚJVÁRI, 2003).

  In this paper, I will present the emergence and reception of the concept of danger to society in Hungarian criminal law and criminal jurisprudence, from the preceding period – which applied formal illegality – to the Criminal Code of legal force. 

• Validation of the claim for paid leave

  127-152

  Edina Ágnes Tass

  Views:

  94

  The study covers the most important rules regarding leave, with the aim of helping employees and employers deepen their knowledge of how to grant leave. In this context, the study covers what should be done with leave not granted until the end of the year, whether the economic interest of the employer can justify its interruption, whether and when it can be redeemed for money, and how long the request in this direction can be asserted, i.e. when it occurs the statute of limitations. Furthermore, it covers what the solution is in the event of the termination of the employment relationship, when the employee has taken less or even more leave than he or she would have been entitled to in proportion to the time, focusing on who needs to prove what to successfully enforce the claim, and what is the importance of it the employer's registration obligation. In addition to the European Union and domestic regulation of freedom, the study included some guiding decisions of the Court of Justice of the European Union and the Curia, on the basis of which the conclusion can be drawn that the courts try to give the correct interpretation of the legislation in the individual cases that come before them, which are precedents due to their nature, they are also binding in other matters.

• Regulatory issues of intellectual property rights

  27-33.

  György Csécsy

  Views:

  144

  The study finds that the regulation of intellectual property is dominated by civil law rules. The old Civil Code expressed the correlation with the law of intellectual property and regulated the legal protection of know-how, however, the legal material could be found in the separate legal acts organically related to it. The new Civil Code, Act V of 2013 is no longer entitled as intellectual property rights but “copyright and industrial property rights”, and know-how has been protected as a form of trade secret. The homogeneous nature of copyright is broken by Act XCIII of 2016, which provides for collective rights management. In the field of industrial property protection, the most problematic legal institution was know-how. The LIV Act of 2018, which was born after the rules of the new Civil Code, opens a new chapter in the regulation of know-how. In this connection, the law transposes Directive 2016/943/EU into the Hungarian law. The legislator therefore chose the solution that it has incorporated the new conceptual approach, legal institutions, and rules of procedure for the protection of business secrets into national law not by creating them in the Civil Code but by creating new legislation. In this way, the private secrets of natural and legal persons will continue to enjoy the protection of personal rights, while trade secrets and know-how will enjoy protection based on the logic and sanction system of intellectual property protection.

• The special requirements applicable to the management of national assets, with a special respect to the requirement of transparency

  85-96.

  Zóra Zsófia Lehoczki

  Views:

  150

  The Fundamental Law of Hungary states that the property of the Hungarian State and of municipal governments shall be considered national assets. National assets shall be managed and protected for the purpose of serving the public interest, satisfying common needs and preserving natural resources, taking also into account the needs of future generations. Economic operators – such as companies - owned by the State or municipal governments shall conduct business prudently and independently, in accordance with the relevant legislation, under the requirements of legality, efficiency and effectiveness. The special requirements regarding the management and safeguarding are laid down in Act CXCVI of 2011 on National Assets (hereinafter: National Assets Act) and Act CVI of 2007 on State Property (hereinafter: State Property Act) also contains a few requirements in its preamble.

  Based on the above, national assets shall be managed and protected in a special way, compared to privately owned assets. Publicly owned enterprises play a very important role in the national economy, since they provide a significant amount of GDP, they employ numerous people, they usually provide public services and last but not least they manage public funds. As a consequence, these companies shall also manage their assets with respect to the special requirements. In our article, we introduce these requirements by examining their content and also their relationship towards each other.

  One of the most important requirements is transparency, since these enterprises manage public funds and according to the Fundamental Law, every organization managing public funds shall publicly account for the management of those funds. Public funds and national assets shall be managed according to the principles of transparency and of corruption-free public life. Data relating to public funds or to national assets shall be recognized as data of public interest. We lay a special emphasis on transparency by introducing the relating regulation and also by summarizing the most prominent statements of court decisions from the last few years. In their judgements the courts interpreted the requirement of transparency in connection with state-owned enterprises and the relationship between transparency and the protection of business secrets and business interests of the companies.

• The Justice System of the returned Parts of the Country after the Second Vienna Award

  23-31.

  László Ádám Joó

  Views:

  113

  The reconstruction of the justice system in the eastern and Transylvanian parts of the country, which returned in 1940, is currently a barely explored area in the Hungarian constitutional history. In this study, my aim is to present through the court system the enormous task of the legislator, which was implemented eighty years ago. This topic can be included in my researches on the legal system of the area, not only from the constitutional history point of view, but also when examining the enforcement of extended private law. The judicial practice was highly influenced by the legal knowledge of judges and became frequently questionable during the period of the extension of the Hungarian private law (1941-42) and it was closely related to their legal activities prior to their appointment.

  In the present study, I follow the changes that took place between the two Romanian occupations (1918-19 and 1944) in the two parts of the country that returned at the same time, highlighting the period when the territories were ruled by the Hungarian state for four years. I use the relevant legislation, archival documents and the literature published so far. Therefore, this study was not intended to be a summary of them, but a synthesis containing new conclusions.

• Fragmentation and changes in Hungarian succession law

  81-103

  Tibor Kiss

  Views:

  219

  The right to inherit is recognized in the Fundamental Law, the detailed substantive legal rules are laid down in the Seventh Book of the Civil Code. In recent years, the legislator has formulated rules of substantive succession in other legislation beyond our private law code (the Civil Code). According to the Registered Partnership Act, the rules applicable to the spouse apply mutatis mutandis to the registered partner, which means that the registered partner is also a legal heir. The special rules for the acquisition of ownership of agricultural and forestry land by succession by will are laid down in the Land Traffic Act (Act CXXII of 2013). On 1 January 2023, a new law will enter into force (Act CXLIII of 2021), which will supplement the succession law provisions of the Civil Code in the case of joint legal intestate succession of undivided common ownership of agricultural land by several heirs. The designation of a public body to represent the State in succession matters is provided for in a separate ministerial decree. The present article analyzes how all these complex, fragmented regulations make it difficult to enforce the law and the extent to which it hinders the speedy execution of probate proceedings. The present article criticizes the fragmented regulation and proposes the integration of the rules of the separate laws into the Civil Code, as this could contribute to a more efficient application of the law.

• Rethinking principles of civil procedure - expectations and experiences:

  118-127.

  Tamás dr. Molnár

  Views:

  192

  The central topic of the present study is certain features of the principles re-regulated during the codification of the Hungarian Code of Civil Procedure. It can be said that the number and content of the principles have also become more concentrated as a result of codification.

  The Act CXXX of 2016 on the Code of Civil Procedure (hereinafter “CPC”) brought a number of conceptual changes, which can also be observed in terms of principles. The principles chapter of the CPC has been renewed, some principles that are not yet known in Hungarian civil procedure law have been laid down. The present study reviews these changes and also seeks to take a position on the content of the principles, with a separate examination of the Principle of Concentration of Proceedings, which has also been identified as a priority objective by the legislator.

  The paper analyzes the academic debates on the principles and attempts to answer whether the experience of the period since its entry into force has met some of the expectations for the reform of the principles. The study examines the changed regulations that have led to opposing views in the literature.

  An important topic of the study is that, in line with the divided structure of the proceeding, the court's intervention activities have also changed. This change can also be observed in the principles, as the Principle of Court's Obligation to Intervene has emerged as a new principle. Some features of the Principle of Truth-telling and Principle of Good Faith are also analyzed.

  The study seeks to shed light on the fundamental issues of civil procedure through foreign examples, in which certain elements of German legislation are mainly mentioned.

• Living fabric on a metal frame, or the possibilities of asserting the claim of the "platform worker"

  141-161

  Gergely Árpád Kiss

  Dóra Varga

  Views:

  98

  Our aim in the present research is to present the theoretical and practical problems related to platform work, focusing on their subjects and possible legal gaps and other anomalies in legislation and enforcement.

  The study is mainly based on two major pillars, in which – perhaps not in a very usual way –the old and current problem are presented, namely the classification issues related to employee status, the situation of employers, precisely the installation and enforceability of employer rights and obligations.

  It is an undeniable fact that most of the studies in this field focus primarily on employee classification. Although, for the sake of this study, we want to focus on the relationship between the parties, as the legal relationship can be interpreted and analyzed in its entirety if – in addition to mapping the circumstances of the persons performing the work – the exercise of partial rights between the platform and the employer is sufficiently examined.