Szerző a korábbi rét-legelő vizsgálatok (faji összetétel, osztályozás, szénahozam, tápérték) mellett ökológiai-cönológiai értékelési, ún. indikációs módszert javasol. Ezt részben még a Nemzetközi Biológiai Program (I.B.P.) hazai mintaterülete növényzetének ökológiai elemzésére (indikációjának értelmezésére) dolgozták ki. Duna-völgyi (25 db 5×5 m-es mintaterület, Simon, 1980) és Tiszaháti (20 db 5×5 m-es mintaterület, Juhász és Nagy, 1956) rét-legelő mintaterületek összesített táblázatait (A-D érték) elemzi. A minták faji összetételének, fajtömegének alapján ökológiai-cönológiai csoportok tömegét és eloszlását vizsgálja. Így elemzi a T-W-R-érték (Zólyomi és Précsényi. 1964), a cönotípus csoportok (Soó, 1968) és a természetvédelmi érték kategóriák (Simon, 1988) megoszlását. Ezek eredményei alapján megállapítja a minták hasonlóságát és különbségét. A kisoroszi minta növényzetének indikációja nedvesebb vízellátású (itt a csúcs is) ökológiai viszonyokat, bázikusabb talajt és erős gyomosodást mutat. A beregi minták növényei közepes vízháztartást (a csúcs a szárazban van), kissé savanyúbb talajt, természetesebb ökológiai és cönológiai állapotokat jeleznek. A hőmérsékleti indikáció közel azonos. A vizsgálatok hosszú időtávú ismétlése a bekövetkező változások irányának, jellegének megismerését is lehetővé teszi.

The agricultural value of an extensive, alternativly used grassland with three seed densities (500 seed m-2, 1000 seed m-2 and 1500 seed m-2) and at two sowing times was examined in an established grassland experiment with herbs on sandy brown forest soil in Gödöllő in the spring and autumn of 2002.
The results showed that treatment No. 3 (=1500 seed m-2) had the highest agricultural value. It can be concluded that the highest seed norm resulted in the highest grass cover. Through the estimated agricultural value, we have also proved that the grass established in autumn grows more vigorously than the dicotyledonous species. This follows from the biological characteristics of the two plant groups. The grasses are tolerant towards cold and perennial species, while most of the dicotyledonous are annual and prefer milder conditions.
Grassland areas with the same ecological basis differ greatly as far as their plant composition is concerned, depending on seed density. In addition, the plant composition changes continusly according to sowing time.

The effects of different N, P and K supply levels and their combinations on the development, yield and N-uptake of an established all-grass sward were examined in the 28th year of a long-term fertilization experiment set up on a calcareous chernozem soil. The soil of the growing site contained around 3% humus, 5% CaCO3, 20-22% clay in the ploughed layer and was originally moderately well supplied with available K, Mg, Mn and Cu and poorly supplied with P and Zn. The trial included 4Nx4Px4K=64 treatments in 2 replications, giving a total of 128 plots. The fertilizers applied were Ca-ammonium nitrate, super phosphate and potassium chloride. The groundwater table was at a depth of 13-15 m and the area was prone to drought. In 2001, however, the area had a satisfactory amount of 621 mm precipitation with a fairly good distribution. The grass was established on 21. September 2000. The main results and conclusions can be summarised as follows:
     1. Grass herbage had a very favourable wet year in 2001 with over 700 mm rainfall during the total vegetation period. The hay yield of unfertilised control plots was by the 1st cut 1.7 t/ha, by the 2nd cut 1.2 t/ha, while the N3P3K3 treatment gave 8.8 t/ha and 4.2 t/ha resp., so NPK fertilization increased the air-dried hay yield from 3 t/ha to 13 t/ha (1st+2nd cuts together).
     2. The N-requirement of the young grass was moderate while the P-response significant by the 1st cut. The optimum P-supply was at the 150 mg/kg ammonium lactate soluble AL-P2O5 in the plow layer. There were no K-responses on this soil with 135 mg/kg AL-K2O values.
     3. There were no P responses any more by the 2nd cut even on the low P-supply soil, with 66 mg/kg AL-P2O5 value, while the applied N increased the hay yield 4 times. The optimum N content in the hay, leading to maximum yield, amounted 2% by the 1st cut and 2.5-3.0% at the 2nd cut. Applied N decreased air-dried content at the 1st cut from 33% to 31%, at the 2nd cut from 27% to 21%.
     4. On the soil, well supplied with PK, the 100 kg/ha/yr N treatment gave the maximum hay surpluses: at the 1st cut 61 kg, at the 2nd cut 14 kg, that is a total of 75 kg hay/kg N applied. The 200 kg/ha/yr plots yielded 43 kg, 300 kg/ha/yr yielded 34 kg hay/kg N applied. The primary sward hay had 0.34% NO3-N in the 300 kg/ha/yr treatment, which was over the allowable 1.25% NO3-N limit for animal foodstuff. The NO3-N content in the N-control plots amounted 0.06%, in the 100 kg/ha/yr treatment 0.10%, in the 200 kg/ha/yr treatment 0.22%. At the 2nd cut the hay had generally, half as high NO3-N content as in the 1st cut hay in all treatments.
     5. The apparent recovery of applied N, using difference method, was even more than 100% on the well supplied with PK soil suggesting that in these instances grass herbage could make a good use of soil NO3-N pool accumulated in soil during the previous period and not used by the crops.

The effect of different N, P and K supply levels and their combinations on the nutritional values and nutrient yield of an established all-grass sward were examined in 28th year of a long-term fertilization field experiment set up on a calcareous chernozem loamy soil. The fertilizer responses on the development, hay yield and N-uptake were published elsewhere (Kádár, 1994). The soil of the growing site contained around 3% humus, 5% CaCO₃, 20-22% clay in the ploughed layer and was originally moderately well supplied with available K, Mg, Mn and Cu and poorly supplied with P and Zn. The trial included 4Nx4Px4K=64 treatments in 2 replications, giving a total of 128 plots. The fertilizers applied were Ca-ammonium nitrate, superphosphate and potassium chloride. The groundwater table was at a depth of 13-15 m and the area was prone to drought. In 2001, however, the area had a satisfactory amount of 621 mm precipitation with fairly good distribution. The grass was established on 21. September 2000. The main results and conclusions can be summarised as follows:
     1. While the grass herbage yield was determined by the NxP supply levels, the nutritional values were influenced by the NxK interactions. As a function of NxK treatments, the N-free extract decreased from 532 g/kg (control) to 390 g/kg (N₃K₃), Crude-protein increased on the same plots from 64 g/kg to 183 g/kg, so the ratio of N-free extract/Crude-protein tightened from 8.3 to 2.1. Compared to the unfertilized control, the Crude-ash enhanced with 26%, while the N-dependent Metabolic Protein (MFN) with 286% on the N3K3 levels.
     2. The maximum nutrient yields were measured at the first cut on the 100 kg/ha/yr N-treatment with 150 mg/kg ammoniumlactate soluble P-supply soils for Crude-fibre, Neutral and Acid Detergent Fibres (NDF, ADF) N-free extract, Crude-ash and Nettoenergy (NE) parameters. The Crude-fat and the Energy Dependent Protein (MFE) yields gave maximum surpluses using 200 kg/ha/yr N-rate with high level of 333 mg/kg AL-P2O5 supply in plow-layer. Highest crude-protein and the N-dependent Metabolic Protein (MFN) yields were connected, however, to the highest N3P3 levels, where the yield increased 5-times compared to the control.
     3. At the 2nd cut, both the nutritional values and the nutrient yields changed only as a function of N-supply. Maximum nutrient yields were obtain generally at the 300 kg/ha/yr treatment. Assessing the 1st and 2nd cuts together, the 200 kg/ha/yr treatment seemed to be the best fertilization practice. Among the different NPK treatments developed extreme differences. The unfertilized for 28 years plots (N0P0K0 ) gave small nutrient yields. The moderate N-fertilization alone (N1P0K0) enhanced the yields 2-3 times. The moderate balanced fertilization (N1P1K1) gave further dramatic surpluses. The N-dependent Crude-protein and the protein fractions (MFE, MFN) as well as the Crude-fat yielded maxima values at the highest (N3P3K3) treatment.
     4. Summarizing above, we can state that the satisfactory or abundant fertilization on such soil poor in NPK and in a favourable year can increase the Crude-fibre, the fiber fractions (NDF, ADF), N-free extract, Crude-ash, Crude-fat and Nettoenergy (NE) yields 3-5 times, while the N-dependent Crude-protein and protein-fractions (MFE, MFN) even 7-8-times.

The effects of different N, P and K supply levels and their combinations were examined on the mineral element content of an established all-grass sward with seed mixture of eight grass species in the 28th year of a long term fertilization field experiment set up on a calcareous chernozem loamy soil. The lay-out and method of the trial as well as the fertilizer responses on the hay yield were published elsewhere (Kádár 2004). The effect of fertilization on the nutritional values and nutrient yield also described earlier (Kádár and Győri, 2005). The soil of the growing site contained around 3% humus, 5% CaCO3, 20-22% clay in the ploughed layer and was originally, moderately well supplied with available K, Mg, Mn and Cu and poorly supplied with P and Zn. The trial included 4Nx4Px4K=64 treatments in 2 replications, giving a total of 128 plots. The fertilizers applied were Ca-ammonium nitrate, superphosphate and potassium chloride. The groundwater table was at a depth of 13-15 m, the area was prone to drought. In 2001, however the area had a satisfactory amount of 621mm precipitation with a fairly good distribution. The grass was established on 21. September 2000. The main results and conclusions can be summarised as follows:
     1. As a function of N-fertilization the element content of the 1st cut hay usually increased, except for Al and Mo, which showed dilution effects. The concentration of K, Ca, Mg, Mn, P, Sr, B, Ni enhanced with 25-50%, S and Co with 60-70%, N and Cu 2-times, NO3-N and Na about 5-times compared to the N-control. The P-fertilization stimulated uptake of Mn and Mg for 10-20%; S, NO3-N and Co for 40-50%, Na and for Sr 60-70%, P for 90%, however, inhibited the uptake of Zn and Co for 20-40%, Al and Fe for 50-60%, Mo for 70% compared to the P-control.
     2. The P/Zn ratio showed on P-control soil optimal values of 118, while on highly P-supplied soil 278 P/Zn ratio, so indicating Zn-deficiency. As a function of PxK negative interactions, concentration of Fe dropped from 307 to 105 Al from 206 to 60, Mo from 0.44 to 0.05, Cr from 0.33 to 0.12 mg/kg in air-dry hay. The Cu/Mo ration on N-control soil showed the optimal value of approx. 10, while on heavily fertilized with N soil that of 40-80, indicating extreme Mo-deficiency.
     3. The 2nd cut hay contained about 20% more N, K, Ca, Mg, Na, 40% more Cu, 70-80% more S and Mn, 90% more Fe and P, 140% more Al and nearly 5-times more Mo. The content of B did not changed, while NO3-N dropped about 40% . The Cu/Mo ratio showed value of 2.6 on N-control soil, while on heavily fertilized with N soil ratio of 7.8. The P/Zn ratio indicated on P-control soil optimal value of 150, while on overfertilized with P soil value of 269. So, the P-induced Zn-deficiency could also be proven in the 2nd cut hay, while the Cu-induced Mo-deficiency disappered.
     4. The N-fertilization stimulated in the 2nd cut hay also the accumulation of elements N, K, Mg, P, Mn, Cu and Ni with 20-50% compared to the N-control. The NO3-N increased 4-times, while Na content 10-times. However the elements Fe, Al, B, Mo and Cr showed a dilution effect with 20-60%. The P-fertilization increased the concentration of Mn, Sr, Cd, Co, S and P, while decreased the content of Na, NO3-N, Cu and Zn. As a general rule, the K-fertilization hindered the accumulation of metal cations. The P-induced Cd accumulation was fully counterbalanced by increasing K-supply of soil.
     5. Summarizing above we can state that the long-term fertilization can drastically (in some cases with an order of magnitude) change the concentrations and ratios of elements built in hay through synergetic or antagonistic effects. In the 1st cut hay, for example, the minima-maxima contents of measured elements varied in air-dry hay as follows: N 0.90-3.02, Ca 0.4-0.7, S 0.14-0.32, P 0.12-0.30, Mg 0.10-0.24%; Na 70-700, Fe 100-288, Al 45-250, Mn 71-130, Sr 10-22, Zn 7-14, Ba 6-11, B 3.6-8.1, Ni 0.3-1.6, Cr 0.1-0.4, Mo 0.04-0.44, Co 0.04-0.12 mg/kg.

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare subsp. capillaceum var. vulgare) belongs to the Apiaceae family. The drug is used widely in phytotherapy and in the food industry.
In the course of our investigations, we analysed the frost tolerance of 16 populations of different origin in the second vegetation cycle.
We classified the frost tolerance of populations into three distinct groups:
- frost resistant (the populations showed satisfactory overwintering)
- partial frost tolerant (about 25-60% of the populations were frozen)
- frost sensitive (all populations were frozen).
We established that using prewinter covering about 70% of the populations overwintered well.

Medicinal species from the spontaneous flora of East-European countries become an increasing important source for the pharmaceutic industry, as the areal of the natural habitats of plants constantly decrease due to industrialization and pollution. The pastures of the Aninei Mountains can offer an important number of medicinal species appreciated in phytotherapy, but also a constant source for the research and discovery of new medicines. There have been identified 107 plants of pharmaceutic interest, among which the following present a particular importance because of their higher occcurence and importance in therapy: Achillea sp., Thymus sp., Viola sp., Hypericum perforatum, Plantago lanceolata, Origanum vulgare, Primula sp., Taraxacum officinale, Urtica dioica, Filipendula ulmaria.

There are several products can be originated from the grass-land but their economic value in some cases are uncertain. The article shows the social benefits of the grass-land products answering the same time for the question: what the value is of the product in practice and how can it be determined. There are considered the market and non-market type of product of the grass-land and a new category is introduced; the animal keeping value of the grass.

Value of grassland products

Olyan szakember távozott tőlünk, aki széles körű közgazdasági és mezőgazdasági ismeretével sokat lendített a két tudományág hazai helyzetén. Előadásai ésszerűek, közérthetők és világosak voltak, lenyűgözték a hallgatóságot, és mindenki meggyőződött mondanivalójának igazáról.
Mivel többször tartott gyepgazdálkodási rendezvényeinken előadást, sokan megkérdezték, miként lehetséges, hogy egy közgazdász egy tőle távol álló szakmáról ilyen közérthetően, meggyőzően beszél. A válaszom egyszerű volt: - „Úgy, hogy a saját szakmáját mozaikként kezeli a tudományok gömbjének felületén, de ahhoz a gömböt néhányszor körbe kell járnia, hogy a saját szakmai mondanivalóját megfelelő helyre kapcsolhassa. Mert ő a szakmai ismeretei csúcsán állt, és kereste a lehetőséget, hogy hol hasznosíthat valamit abból, amit élete során összeszedett. Ezért volt meggyőző minden előadása.”

Gyepgazdálkodásunkban fellelhető súlyos hiányosságok megítélésem szerint két alapvető problémára vezethetők vissza:
1.) a mezőgazdaság, különösen az állattenyésztés mindenkori helyzetére,
2.) az állattartással kapcsolatos szakmai, gyakorlati nézetek, felfogások irányultságára.
Ami az első kérdést illeti:
- A mezőgazdaság helyzetét tömören a következő képen jellemezhetjük: az 1980-as évek második felében kezdődött látens válság az 1990-es évek elejére átfogó, nyílt válsággá vált. A válság jellemző lett az egész gazdaságra. Ebben az ún. transzformációs válságban – átgondolt, átfogó koncepció nélkül – kezdődött meg a magyar agrárium átalakulása. A válság súlyos gazdasági visszaesést, romló gazdasági egyensúlyt, egészében kedvezőtlen makrogazdasági feltételeket teremtett az agrárium számára. Az agrártermékeknek mind a belső, mind a külső piaca összeszűkült.
Az agrárátalakulás főbb jellemzői a következők:
- A tulajdonátalakulást főleg a napi politikai érdekek, a korábbi tulajdoni sérelmek orvoslása irányította, következésképpen elmaradt a hatékony struktúrák kiépítése. A földtulajdonjog szétaprózódott, jelentős részben nem a mezőgazdaságból élők lettek a tulajdonosok.
- Polarizált birtokstruktúra jött létre. Egyik oldalon sok kis vállalkozó kevés földdel, a másik oldalon a földhasználatban, a bérleti rendszer elterjedése következtében a nagyobb gazdaságok túlsúlya a jellemző.

For centuries, Hungary used to be a beef store for European cities, from Strasburg to Venice. The cattle born and raised on Hungarian pastures were favoured for the excellent quality meat they produced.
In the 19th century, the tradition of keeping livestock on pastures was gradually replaced by stabling and feeding farm animals with monocultures grown on ploughland. The best pastures were ploughed over and only 30% of those that survived were actually used for grazing. Today, it is mainly pastures in national parks that are used for grazing, while this practice is not typical elsewhere.
Based on several decades’ experiments, it can be established that grazing livestock has several beneficial effects:
– pastures provide the most valuable feed for livestock, which sustain their good health conditions,
– livestock cease to be a source of environment pollution for towns and villages,
– manure raises the nutritive value of pastures,
– all the above makes farming more economical
This study provides evidence for the above, based on experiments and production experience.