Search
Search Results
-
“And who will desalt Carthage’s grounds?” – International environmental legal approaches of the Yugoslavian wars 1991-1999
Views:29Általánosan elfogadott nézet, hogy egyetlen háború sem vívható meg anélkül, hogy ne ártana a természetnek, sőt, ne rombolná le azt; ennél fogva, hosszú időn át a háborúk e hatását elkerülhetetlen következménynek tekintették, melynek megakadályozására nem született átfogó, nemzetközi rezsim.
A nemzetközi közösségben, az 1990-es években kiteljesedő értékrendváltozás nyomán, azonban egyre erősödött az igény a környezet védelmének háborúk idejére való kiterjesztése iránt is. E folyamattal egyidejűleg a világ számos régiójában törtek ki fegyveres konfliktusok, melyek sajátos esettanulmányokként mutatják be a nemzetközi jogi szabályozás és annak gyakorlati érvényesülése közötti, gyakran ellentmondásos kapcsolatot.
A tanulmány középpontjába állított, a volt Jugoszlávia területén zajlott konfliktusok számos súlyos kérdésre és hiányosságra hívták fel a nemzetközi közvélemény figyelmét, elsősorban két területen: bizonyos, veszélyesnek tekinthető objektumok támadását, valamint a szegényített urániumot tartalmazó lövedékek használatát illetően, mindkét esetben felvetve a támadásokban közvetlenül érintett Észak-atlanti Szerződés Szervezetének (NATO), valamint tagállamainak esetleges nemzetközi jogi felelősségét.
A tanulmány első részében vizsgált veszélyes objektumok támadását illetően átfogó képet az UNEP által készített jelentés biztosít, mely azonban maga is több tekintetben árnyalt, olykor ellentmondásosnak tekinthető megállapítást is tartalmaz. A támadások pontos környezeti hatásának tisztázatlansága mellett számos további kérdést hagy nyitva a releváns nemzetközi jogi szabályozás is. Az 1949-es genfi egyezmények és 1977-s kiegészítő jegyzőkönyveik szabályai alapján ugyanis a támadott objektumok nem minősülnek veszélyesnek, ennél fogva kiemelten védettnek, annak ellenére, hogy támadásaik kimutatható környezeti károkat okoztak.
A tanulmány, és egyben a vizsgált jogterület kulcsproblémája azonban a jogsértés minimális határértékének tisztázatlansága, illetve ésszerűtlenül magasra helyezése, melynek révén csupán a rendkívül nagy területet érintő és páratlanul súlyos szennyezés minősül az egyezmények megsértésének. A szerző megítélése szerint e kritériumrendszer átértelmezése lehet az első lépés a környezet háborúk idején való hatékony védelme kidolgozásához.
A második vizsgált kérdésként vizsgált szegényített uránium tartalmú lövedékek használata a megosztott és kiforratlan tudományos álláspont miatt további jogbizonytalanságot eredményez.
Noha e lövedékek a hatályos nemzetközi hadijogi szabályozás alapján nem minősülnek kifejezetten tiltott fegyvereknek, az ilyen lövedéket alkalmazó feleket kifejezett körültekintési és elővigyázatossági kötelezettség terheli a polgári lakosságot érintő káros mellékhatásokat illetően.
E kérdés tehát továbbra is lezáratlan, azonban a szerző nem zárja ki annak lehetőségét, hogy amennyiben a jövőben e mellékhatások tudományos alapossággal is bebizonyosodnak, a NATO, illetve tagállamai nemzetközi jogi felelőssége felmerüljön.
Összefoglalóan megállapítható, hogy a hatályos szabályozás, az elmúlt évek fejlődési tendenciái ellenére továbbra is több hiányossággal küzd, különösen a felelősség megállapítása és a kikényszerítési eljárások tekintetében.
Noha az elkezdett folyamatok a jövőben kiteljesedhetnek, mindaddig, amíg a jelen nemzetközi rendszerben a háborúindítás továbbra is az államok gyakorlatának része, a környezet háborúk idején való védelmének lehetőségei korlátozottak maradnak.
-
Manifestations of Para-administration in Hungarian Public Administration
Views:76Az angol nyelven olvasható értekezés alapját a 2007. november 8-án Sninában (Szlovákiában) megrendezett Nemzetközi Konferencián tartott angol nyelvű előadásom képezi. Az írás középpontjában egy közigazgatási jogi fogalomnak, a közvetett közigazgatás jelenségének és annak egyes megnyilvánulási formáinak bemutatása áll. A paraetatizmus az ún. atipikus közigazgatás részét képezi. Lényegében egy gyüjtőkategória, mely számos megoldást foglal magában. A kérdéskör azonban ezidáig viszonylag kis figyelmet kapott a közigazgatás kutatói részéről.
Az egyszerűség és a könnyebb megértés érdekében az értekezés három nagy szerkezeti egységre tagolódik.
I.
A dolgozat elején azoknak a történelmi folyamatoknak és jellemzőknek a bemutatására kerül sor, melyek végső soron a vizsgált megoldások kialakulásához vezettek. Ennek során fokozatosan eljutunk a direkt (lényegében szűk értelemben vizsgált) közigazgatás fogalmától az indirekt közigazgatás, azaz paraetatizmus jelenségéhez. Nélkülüzhetetlen azonban annak a hangsúlyozása, hogy a közvett közigazgatás egy meglehetősen tág kategória, mely tartalmában erőteljesen heterogén. A paraetatizmus fogalmán belül vizsgált jelenségeknek nincs taxatív felsorolása. Nem is lehet, hiszen a lehetséges megoldások köre koronként és területenként is változhat, és változik is.
II.
A dolgozat második része a magyar szabályozás ismertetésével foglalkozik. Először a hatályos jogi szabályozás bemutatására kerül sor, mely egyúttal rávilágít arra az igen fontos tényre is, hogy a paraetatikus megoldások alkalmazására mind az államigazgatás területén, mind pedig az önkormányzati közigazgatás keretein belül adott a lehetőség. Ezután kerül sor a konkrét megoldások bemutatására, azaz a köztestületek, a magánszemélyek felhatalmazása köfeladatok ellátására, a közvetítő szervezetek és személyek, a magánszféra szereplőinek, valamint a non-profit szektor szerepének ismertetésére.
III.
Végezetül a harmadik gondolati egység az, amely összegző jelleggel tartalmazza állásfoglalásomat a bemutatott megoldások közigazgatásban való alkalmazhatóságával kapcsolatban. Ennek a gondolati egységnek a jelentősége abban ragadható meg, hogy rámutat arra a szerepkörre, melyet ezek a megoldások egy már létező, élő, működő közigazgatásban betölthetnek. Ezek a megoldások ugyanis a mindenkori közigazgatás kisegítésére, a már alkalmazott megoldások kiegészítésére szolgálnak és sohasem azok helyettesítésére, illetve negligálására.
-
The Hungarian Regulation of Domestic Partnership and The Domestic Partnership Registry
29-35Views:168In recent decades, the number of the couples who live in domestic partnership and the number of children born to parents in a domestic partnership in Hungary and across Europe increased significantly. Because of these facts and reasons there was a need for a significant revision of the Hungarian regulation on domestic partnership that took place in the new Civil Code of Hungary of 2013. The notaries of Hungary have had a new role in the area of registration. In my work as a vice-notary, I often experience that couples who live in domestic partnership are entirely unconscious of the legal effects of choosing this form of living together.
In this paper I give an overview of the past and present of the Hungarian regulation on domestic partnership. I pay particular attention to the Domestic Partnership Registry conducted by the Hungarian National Chamber of Civil Law Notaries. This summary gives me an excellent opportunity to give an account of my opinion about the registry and my practical experience with the conduction of the registry.
-
A felróhatóságot nem vizsgáló felelősségi rendszer alapvonásainak bemutatása az új-zélandi szabályozás tükrében
72-81Views:42Without abstract.
-
Product warranty – a new legal institution in the protection of the consumer interest
2-7Views:48This study presents the product warranty, a new element of the Hungarian system of law. The author describes the main features of product warranty in comparison with warranty and product liability. The author states some comments on the regulation. In the end the importance of product warranty is presented by stating a case.
Egy új jogi szabályozás megjelenésekor adott a lehetőség az elméleti és gyakorlati szakemberek számára, hogy a korábbi normaszöveghez történő hasonlítással tárják fel és elemezzék a változásokat. A Polgári Törvénykönyvről szóló 2013. évi V. törvény (Ptk.) nem vitásan érinti a civiljog teljes spektrumát, új elemekkel frissítve a már kialakult magánjogi intézményrendszert. Jelen írás a termékszavatosság szabályainak elemző bemutatására tesz kísérletet.
A magyar jogi szabályozásban előzmények nélküli jogintézményről van szó, ezért a meghatározó jellemzők bemutatása más, a hibás teljesítéshez kapcsolódó jogintézményekhez történő hasonlítással történik meg. Ennek során a kiindulási alapot a hibás teljesítésből eredő igények „anyajogának” tekinthető kellékszavatosság jelenti, ezen túlmenően a hibás teljesítéssel okozott károk megtérítésére (a továbbiakban: kártérítés), valamint termékfelelősségre vonatkozó szabályok kapnak szerepet.
A termékszavatosságra vonatkozó rendelkezések a Ptk.-nak a kötelmi jogi szabályokat tartalmazó hatodik könyvében, annak XXIV. fejezetében, a hibás teljesítésre vonatkozó rendelkezéseknél szerepelnek a kellékszavatosságra és kártérítésére vonatkozó szabályokkal együtt. A hibás teljesítésből eredő fogyasztói igények körében további igényérvényesítési lehetőséget teremtő termékfelelősségi szabályok ettől eltérően a szerződésen kívül okozott kárért való felelősséggel szabályai között, a LXXII. fejezetben kaptak helyet.
-
A munkaviszony megszűnésének és megszüntetésének új szabályai a korábbi szabályozás tükrében
24-34Views:122From the 1st of July 2012, Act XXII of 1992 on the Labour Code, which was effective from the 1st of July 1992, had given place Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (New Code). The New Code has brought a lot of changes concerning the cessation and termination of the employment. The univoque aim of the legislator, near reducing the number of the labour suits, was resolving the inconsistency of the practice, corresponding to the changing social and economic relations, furthermore harmonising the Hungarian law to the law of the European Union. The rules concerning the termination of the employment have not substantially changed. The New Code broadens the list of cases regulated previously. Concerning the termination of the employment, the New Code determines the ordinary dismissal as dismissal, whereas the extraordinary dismissals as dismissal with prompt effect.
At the same time, it is a new rule, that the parties could terminate the definite term employment with dismissal, if the conditions determined by the New Code emerge. The New Code has brought substantial changes concerning the rules of the dismissal protection. It constricts the number of cases when the dismissal protection could be applicable and respecting the application of the dismissal protection, it considers authoritative the moment of the notification of the dismissal. For example an expectant mother could refer to the dismissal protection, if she had notified the employer about the pregnancy before the notification of dismissal.
According to subsection 3 of section 65, there are cases, when the dismissal should not be communicated, whereas according to subsection 2 of section 68, the dismissal could be communicated, but the termination period would start earliest after the last day determined by the New Code.
The New Code, contrary to the old one, determines 6 months as the longest term of the dismissal period. The rules of the acquittal and the severance pay have not changed substantially. Regarding the dismissal with prompt effect, the legislator makes a distinction between the termination with motivation and the termination without motivation. It is a substantial modification regarding the unlawful termination of the employment, that according to the rules of the New Code, the employee could claim for damages as arrears of salary, which could not exceeds the 12 months amount of the absence fee. The restoration of the employment could be executed only in the few cases determined by section 83 and only if the employee requests for it. -
Legislative Processes and ICT
Views:108In the first part of our work, we described the judgment of quality legislation in Hungary. Based on the standpoint of outstanding practitioners of domestic jurisprudence, we presented the conceptual definitions of quality legislation together with their content elements, stating that quality legislation is a constantly changing "legal category", the periodic review of which is justified.
In the second part of our work, we gave an overview of the general role of ICT in the human community, which similarly to quality legislation, constantly changes, and permanently increases and evolves.
In the final part of the study, we briefly outlined the role of ICT in legislation (including some examples of foreign states) and the most recently applied system in Hungary, i.e. IJR.
-
Interpretation anomalies in the Vienna Sale Convention damages practice
14-26.Views:230The essay is about the interpretion anomalies in connection with damages law practice of The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG). This seems to be an essential problem regarding to that the Convention’s breach of contract-system is highly relevant, whereas it must provide a mechanism, which serves international trade between countries with huge legal, economic and social disparaties. At the heart of the system we find damages, which provides an efficient and rapid solution to cure the dysfunctions which can occur with respect to cross-border commercial relationships.
The provisions of the Convention are of a universal nature, thus they require uniform interpretation and application by the courts of the Contracting States, therefore Article 7, which deals with interpretation of rules and the filling of legal gaps, is indispensable for the successful application of the Convention and the achievement of its objectives. In this essay by analyzing the relevant case law, I was primarily seeking the answer to whether the judges of different countries validate the universiality of the Convention with respect to damages law. In order to answear the question I have analyzed the Convention’s damages practice in relation to interpretation principles set out in Article 7. Within this I have systematically reviewed the practice of Article 74 of the Convention, analyzing a total of 144 cases from 2006 to 2016.
The revision shows that nine decisions were made during the period under review, where the court has applied national doctrine of liability, law, or practice in connection with the interpretation of Article 74. This method obviously does not promote the realization of uniformity. An internationally uniform sales law will only be realized if it is uniformly applied. For the purpose of the interpretation of the Convention, it follows that requirement the Convention’s provisions must be understood and applied autonomously, separated from their possible national roots. The legal problems discovered in this essay tries to highlight on those issues, which require more attention from the courts, thus confirming the universal character of the Convention.
-
Fragmentation and changes in Hungarian succession law
81-103Views:219The right to inherit is recognized in the Fundamental Law, the detailed substantive legal rules are laid down in the Seventh Book of the Civil Code. In recent years, the legislator has formulated rules of substantive succession in other legislation beyond our private law code (the Civil Code). According to the Registered Partnership Act, the rules applicable to the spouse apply mutatis mutandis to the registered partner, which means that the registered partner is also a legal heir. The special rules for the acquisition of ownership of agricultural and forestry land by succession by will are laid down in the Land Traffic Act (Act CXXII of 2013). On 1 January 2023, a new law will enter into force (Act CXLIII of 2021), which will supplement the succession law provisions of the Civil Code in the case of joint legal intestate succession of undivided common ownership of agricultural land by several heirs. The designation of a public body to represent the State in succession matters is provided for in a separate ministerial decree. The present article analyzes how all these complex, fragmented regulations make it difficult to enforce the law and the extent to which it hinders the speedy execution of probate proceedings. The present article criticizes the fragmented regulation and proposes the integration of the rules of the separate laws into the Civil Code, as this could contribute to a more efficient application of the law.
-
The proprietary rights as the objects of contribution in kind and the occurring problems caused by the lack of unified rules
114-120Views:339According to the new Hungarian Civil Code, the funders of the legal entities have to make contributions to the authorised capital and the two forms of these contributions are the contribution is cash and the contribution in kind. The regulation states that proprietary rights can also be transferred to the capital of businness accociations, by those funders, who are entitled to demise them.
The judicial practice unanimously defined the rules in those cases, when the object of contribution in kind is a certain proprietary right, especially when the right is connected to the real estate. On the other hand, the Civil Code does not contain a list of those proprietary rights, which can be transferred to the authorised capital and unfortunately, different acts contain different lists of these rights.
The three mentioned acts are the following: the personal income tax act, the act about the fees and the accounting act. All of them contain a list of proprietary rights and some of the items are regulated by all the three of them but most of the items are different, which means it is impossible to create an accurate list of these rights. For example, the list in the personal income tax act contains only five items, on the other hand, the accounting act contains two lists and both of them are unfinised.
Because of the lack of unified rules, it is impossible to define which proprietary rights can become the objects of contribution in kind and this misfortunate situation causes a lot of unwanted indefinability and states a lot of questions.
In my essay I introduce this problem and I use a chart to illustrate the differences between the mentioned lists. In my opinion, this problem could be solved with an unified list, which is normative for every regulation in connection with the proprietary rights or the Civil Code should contain a list of those proprietary rights, which can be the objects of contribution in kind.
-
Extracts from the regulations settling the tenure of the matrimonial home in Europe
121-139Views:105The tenure of the matrimonial home after divorce is a significant question in several respects. In addition to the fact that both parties are likely to be emotionally attached to the former scene of family life, the wealth factor must be taken into account as well, as it is a valuable property that can be a real trump card for both spouses these days, considering the high property prices. It should also be borne in mind that if a spouse receives the formal matrimonial home, he or she will not be exposed to the inconvenience of finding a suitable home and will not have to leave his or her usual environment. It follows, however, that a spouse who is forced to move must be compensated in some way for these difficulties, even if he or she did not own the matrimonial home. This study intends to examine the regulation of European countries regarding the use of the marital home in the event of divorce, presenting the typical models and the main aspects considered. The purpose of the present work is not to analyse the Hungarian regulations, they are only mentioned for the aim of comparison. As a conclusion of this research, I would like to reveal the most ideal solution for settling the tenure of the matrimonial home in the event of a divorce, the pros and cons of each model, and if states really take family law principles into account.
-
A new draft of classification of claims: Reinstating of Bankruptcy Rules in the Provisional Judicial Rules
66-77.Views:116After the failure of the Hungarian Independence War of 1848-1849, the neoabsolutism which was the ruling of the Franz Joseph I from 1851 to 1860 reformed the Hungarian legal system. The emperor aimed at legal unification of Austrian Empire therefore he introduced the Austrian codes to Hungary. In 1860 the Austrian emperor eased the absolutistic government attitude with the issuing of the October Diploma and restored the Hungarian jurisdiction and public administration system which functioned before 1847. He charged the Lord Chief Justice, gr. György Apponyi who was recently appointed by him with the realisation of this restitution. That’s why Apponyi summoned a meeting for the Hungarian lawyers in 1861 which called the Conference of the Lord Chief Justice. This assembly specified the material and procedural law for the Hungarian courts.
In this paper I examine the effect of this conference on the bankruptcy law, and I present the provisions of the Conference of Lord Chief Justice concerning bankruptcy law and the driving forces of the regulation based on the assembly’s records. The conference put into force the first Hungarian Bankruptcy Act (Act 22 of 1840) instead of the Austrian provisional bankruptcy procedure. The Hungarian literature typically includes about this regulation that the assembly only adjusted material and procedural rules of the Bankruptcy Act to the requirements of the civil era. I demonstrated with archival sources and views of conference’s participants that the modifications generated bigger changes in the Hungarian bankruptcy practice. In addition, the first appearance of the deed of arrangement without bankruptcy proceedings in Hungary was connected to the neoabsolutism of which the Hungarian lawyers expressed their opinions.
-
Unilateral determination of working time in the effective regulations of labor law
63-80Views:228In most cases, law does not differentiate between various people in equal-level positions of a contract; during sales, the State has the same rights and obligations as the contracting private person. Labor law is a specific field of law where one of the parties that are theoretically on equal level – i.e. the employee – is actually in a somewhat subordinated and obviously more exposed position. In the light of the foregoing, it is especially notable that there are some fields of labor right where the third way applies; parties are not equally positioned in terms of power; however, it is not the employee who gets legal assistance for the equality of opportunities, but the law itself supports their disadvantaged position. Such situation is called the legal situation of unilateral power, and we aim to study to what extent it is present in Hungarian labor law and how advantageous or disadvantageous this it to the parties. The field of law where one is likely to detect the traces of unilateral power is the legal regulation related to working time, which, therefore, is the subject of this study, and the definition of working time will hereinafter be looked into from the aspect of the employer’s unilateral right to establish employment. Unilateral power is basically not typical to be enforced in labor law, and therefore, working time-related regulations – that belong to the employer’s own discretion – form an exception in such respect. At the same time, the option of flexible work order provides an exception from the superiority of unilateral power, and therefore it is actually an exception to the exception. Such complex system, however, provides the option to make sure whether the enforcement of unilateral power is constructive in labor law, or it would be more reasonable to apply a more balanced system such as the principle of the employer’s ultima ratio as suggested by Guy Davidov. While noting that according to those described above, flexible work order poses some potential risks, too, in our opinion, it would be more efficient and social to set up a consensus-based system, which would also allow us to satisfy our obligation of European Union legal harmonization. Hungarian legislation, and labor law legislation in particular has numerous tasks to do in order to promote the solution of socio-economic problems, as well as to fulfill our obligations related to legal harmonization; in our opinion, the conclusions above confirm that making working time regulations more liberal is one of the major tasks of legislation.
-
The new civil law regulation on associations in the mirror of Constitutional Court Rulings
Views:84After the creation of the Basic Law of Hungary, and following a drawn discussion Act CLXXV of 2011 on the Right of Association and the Operation and Funding of Civil Society organizations has come into force (hereinafter referred to as Civil Act). The Civil Act repealed a lot former provitions, thus the Act II. of 1989 on the Right of Association, the law concerning non-profit status, and the provitions related to association of the previous Civil Code. The new Act V of 2013 in the Civil Code has also brought significant changes according to associations.
The base of the rules has changed considerabely, as the permissive legislation, and the freedom of the parties has become the main line.
At present to association the Civil Act, the new regulations about the court registration of associations – such as Act CLXXXI of 2011 –, and the provisions concerning legal persons and associations of the new Civil Code should be applied.
Since the relevant legal regulation has changed, the previous judicial practice is not applicable, courts have to answer the questions among the new legal circumstances as well. However it is sure that the basis of association is the right of association which is a constitutional fundamental right. Due to these significant changes in this paper I have examined those important Constitutional Court Rulings which can be connected with the right of association, and I have tried to compare the decisions of the Constitutional Court with the new present regulation.
-
Regulatory issues of intellectual property rights
27-33.Views:144The study finds that the regulation of intellectual property is dominated by civil law rules. The old Civil Code expressed the correlation with the law of intellectual property and regulated the legal protection of know-how, however, the legal material could be found in the separate legal acts organically related to it. The new Civil Code, Act V of 2013 is no longer entitled as intellectual property rights but “copyright and industrial property rights”, and know-how has been protected as a form of trade secret. The homogeneous nature of copyright is broken by Act XCIII of 2016, which provides for collective rights management. In the field of industrial property protection, the most problematic legal institution was know-how. The LIV Act of 2018, which was born after the rules of the new Civil Code, opens a new chapter in the regulation of know-how. In this connection, the law transposes Directive 2016/943/EU into the Hungarian law. The legislator therefore chose the solution that it has incorporated the new conceptual approach, legal institutions, and rules of procedure for the protection of business secrets into national law not by creating them in the Civil Code but by creating new legislation. In this way, the private secrets of natural and legal persons will continue to enjoy the protection of personal rights, while trade secrets and know-how will enjoy protection based on the logic and sanction system of intellectual property protection.
-
Rethinking principles of civil procedure - expectations and experiences:
118-127.Views:192The central topic of the present study is certain features of the principles re-regulated during the codification of the Hungarian Code of Civil Procedure. It can be said that the number and content of the principles have also become more concentrated as a result of codification.
The Act CXXX of 2016 on the Code of Civil Procedure (hereinafter “CPC”) brought a number of conceptual changes, which can also be observed in terms of principles. The principles chapter of the CPC has been renewed, some principles that are not yet known in Hungarian civil procedure law have been laid down. The present study reviews these changes and also seeks to take a position on the content of the principles, with a separate examination of the Principle of Concentration of Proceedings, which has also been identified as a priority objective by the legislator.
The paper analyzes the academic debates on the principles and attempts to answer whether the experience of the period since its entry into force has met some of the expectations for the reform of the principles. The study examines the changed regulations that have led to opposing views in the literature.
An important topic of the study is that, in line with the divided structure of the proceeding, the court's intervention activities have also changed. This change can also be observed in the principles, as the Principle of Court's Obligation to Intervene has emerged as a new principle. Some features of the Principle of Truth-telling and Principle of Good Faith are also analyzed.
The study seeks to shed light on the fundamental issues of civil procedure through foreign examples, in which certain elements of German legislation are mainly mentioned.