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• A terrorizmus elleni védekezés

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  91

  In the last decades of our globalized world terrorism has become a phenomenon that implies a worldwide challenge and can hardly be prevented, and that is difficult to combat against with means of national and international law. The international terrorism in the sense as we use it nowdays has a history of only one and a half centuries, but since the appearance of concrete terrorist attacks is always changing (and of course the ideology and supplier of the different groups) there has not been any consensus yet among states or within particular international organizations how to define it. But it should be taken into consideration that attacks not only affect the state where they are executed but also the whole society and even the international order. That is why it would be essential to define it in international terms, because without an exact definition the proper defence against it can not be determined either.  

  It has to be emphasized that it does not exist a common strategy that could be adapted any time in any case. It can not be forgotten that the terrorism itself is also an answer, so its political, economical and social roots should be taken into consideration whilst choosing the best way to prevent it. The different means (primarily legal and classical ones) should be combined and used by states in strict cooperation, because these don’t substitute but complete each other. It is also important to underline that it is not enough to react upon terrorist actions and restore its harmful effects, but it is also essential to prevent it by eliminating its causes. Unfortunately, proactive strategies are not common enough - mainly because of its costs - in spite of the fact that in the long run it would be worth using them.

  It is important to act in conformity with international law, because this can legitimate the reaction after an attack. The main task for states is to elaborate an exact legal framework for it, because without global accords and without the acceptance of this policy within the nation an effective policy against terrorism cannot be realized. National criminal law should be aggravated, flow of information among intelligence services, cooperation among media and governments should be developed and it is also essential to inform the society properly and make it obvious that assistance at a terrorist attack is also to be punished. International measures should be taken in order to avoid financing of terrorist actions by preventing money-laundering. These means can be used even with certain restrictions on criminal law, but always respecting human rights either that of the victims or that of the delinquents. 

  To institutionalize international actions under the aegis of the United Nations numerous agreements were accepted, eg. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons (1973), Convention against Taking of Hostages (1979), Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999) and  some conventions were signed on the Prevention Crimes committed in aircrafts, etc. The main problem is that these accords are not signed by all member states and hence their efficiency can be questioned. Of course not only the UN try to solve this problem with international conventions, so does the EU. Its activity has considerably increased since the attacks of Madrid, because this case made two things clear: even Europe is vulnerable and well-timed attacks can even lead to political changes.

  To be able to meet the challenges that terrorism mean nowdays there are two things to emphasize: first of all a worldwide cooperation would be essential and secondly the provision of financial sources for each state so that it were able to ensure national and promote global security.

• A sérelemdíj funkció-analízise

  97-117.

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  196

  A 2013. évi V. törvény (Ptk.) – felválta a korábbi, elméleti és gyakorlati ellentmondásoktól terhes nem vagyoni kártérítés jogintézményét – a személyiségi jogok megsértésének önálló szankciójaként vezeti be a sérelemdíjat, mely kettős funkcióval bír: egyrészt célja az, hogy akit személyiségi jogában megsértenek, olyan pénzbeli juttatásban részesüljön, amely az elszenvedett nem vagyoni sérelmeket hozzávetőlegesen kiegyensúlyozza, kompenzálja. Másrészt magánjogi büntetésnek is tekinthető a hasonló jogsértések megelőzése érdekében, preventív jelleggel.

  A cél szerinti értelmezés szerint a sérelemdíj csak akkor kerülhet alkalmazásra, ha az képes betölteni a funkcióját, vagyis ha nem mutatható ki olyan nem vagyoni sérelem, amely arányos jóvátételére (elsődlegesen) hivatott lenne a sérelemdíj, akkor egyáltalán nincs helye megítélésének, hiszen a személyiséget érintetlenül hagyó jogsértések esetében kizárólag a büntető funkció érvényesülne, ami teljesen összeegyeztethetetlen a magánjog eredendően helyreállító, kiigazító jellegével.

  A jogirodalom egyöntetű véleménye szerint az elsőbbség a kompenzációs funkcióé kell, hogy legyen és csak másodlagos helyet foglalhat el a magánjogi büntetés jelleg. Munkám alapján elmondható, hogy sérelemdíjra a bírák is elsősorban az elszenvedett immateriális sérelmeket orvosló, az elveszett életörömök pótlására szolgáló jogintézményként tekintenek és azt kizárólag preventív céllal nem ítélik meg, hanem az esetek döntő részében a prevenciós funkció a marasztalás összegét emelő tényezőként kerül értékelésre.

  Tanulmányomban több szempontból kívánom elemezni, hogy a sérelemdíj kettős funkcióját a bíróságok hogyan értékelik az előttük fekvő ügyekben, melyik jelleg domborodik ki az összegszerűség és melyik a jogalap kapcsán. Lévén a kutatás alapvetően empirikus jellegű, ezért minél több ítélet feldolgozásán keresztül vizsgálom, hogy, milyen szempontokat értékel a judikatúra a kompenzációs (pl.: elszenvedett testi sérülések, lelki változások, életkor, a sértett családi élete, életvitel megváltozása stb…) és milyen szempontokat a prevenciós funkció (pl.: jogsértés súlya, elhúzódó jellege stb…) keretében. Végül meg kívánom válaszolni dolgozatom központi kérdését, vagyis: milyen funkciót tulajdonít a gyakorlat a sérelemdíjnak.

• A büntetéskiszabási szemlélet alakulása – a büntető kódex folyamatos módosításának tükrében

  96-110

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  54

  The criminal code has had a number of essential revisions during the past years, which has received distinct viewpoints concerning the improvement of punishments from the judiciary in criminal cases. The reasons of modifications can be explained mainly by the different penalty politics coming into prominence, occasionally having respect for different social approaches. It is periodically distinct which activities are indictable offences, which of the punishments serve the prevention of committing an act of crime the best in the fight against criminality. It is interesting to study how these sweeping changes can appear and effect in the daily legal activities. How far can the changes lobby the judges and prosecutors? Which punishment is ideal in the case - suiting to the aim of punishment – in the interest of the protection of society? As a result, analyzing judgments and interviewing some professional jurists (as far as I can) the different requirementson infliction of punishments do not appear immediately in practice and do not appear in the similar way concerning the functions of judges and prosecutors. It is not machines that pass judgement in a case, which could modify the expectation concerning the result.

• Die interaktion zwischen dem kontinentalen und dem angelsächsischen rechtssystem im lichte des FIDIC Gelbes Buch

  49-64

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  49

  Die von der Fédération Internationale des Ingénieurs-Conseils zustande gebrachten sogenannten FIDIC-Bücher enthalten hinsichtlich der Bauanlagen, nach dem Typ des Projekts verschiedene Vertragsmuster, deren primäres Ziel ist, die Best Practice zusammenzufassen und die proportionale Risikobereitschaft zu versichern. Weltweit werden die FIDIC-Bücher als die populärsten Standardformen der Bauverträge bei internationalen Bauprojekten angesehen. Das sogenannte Gelbe Buch (Yellow Book) ist das zweithäufigst angewandte Vertragsmuster, dessen wesentliches Merkmal ist, dass die Pflicht des Unternehmers sich sowohl auf die Planung als auch die Ausführung erstreckt. Das Gelbe Buch basiert auf den Rechtsgrundsätzen sowie Rechtsinstituten des angloamerikanischen Rechtssystems, und daraus folgt, dass die Verwendung des Vertragsmusters im kontinentalen Rechtsumfeld zahlreiche Probleme in Hinsicht auf die Rechtsauslegung und die Rechtsanwendung aufwerfen kann. Nachdem die Studie die Auslegung des Gelben Buchs im kontinentalen Rechtsumfeld behandelt hat, fokussiert sie auf die Frage der für den Verzugsschaden getragenen Verantwortung des Unternehmers.  In den Mittelpunkt der Untersuchung wird der Fall gestellt, bei dem die Verspätung des Unternehmers vom Besteller verursacht wird. Diesen Problemkreis betreffend formuliert der Verfasser einen konkreten Vorschlag bezüglich der Rechtsanwendung.

• Possibilities of workplace mediation in the European Union

  1-13.

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  374

  The world of labor market and industrial relations is a field where conflicts and disputes are inevitable characteristics of the operation, regardless of the form of employment. Also, labor disputes appear both from an individual aspect, where the disputants are the employer and the employee, and in a collective respect, where the disputes take place between the employer(s) and the collective of the workers, typically represented by an employee organization (union) or a works council. 

  When a conflict or a dispute cannot be resolved through negotiation, the law offers dispute resolution mechanisms for the participants. Therefore, several legal mechanisms have been evolved in order to resolve disputes, starting from the classical form of litigation, where a court determines the end of the dispute by its judgement, and other alternative forms of dispute resolution, such as arbitration, mediation and conciliation, where the parties can reach a decision or a settlement outside of the judicial system of the state.

  EU Member States have introduced various legislative rules for labor dispute resolution covering all manner of individual and collective disputes. ADR schemes are also supported by the ILO, as the ILO Recommendation No. 92 (1951) suggests that voluntary conciliation should be made available to assist in the prevention and settlement of industrial disputes between employers and workers. Within the aegis of the European Union, several instruments have emerged with the attempt to elaborate the basic principles for the operation of ADR schemes in the context of cases between businesses and consumers. The Directive 2013/11/EU on alternative dispute resolution for consumer disputes (the “ADR Directive”) and Regulation (EU) No 524/2013 on online dispute resolution for consumer disputes (the “ODR Regulation”) ensured that consumers could turn to quality alternative dispute resolution entities for all kinds of contractual disputes with traders, and established an EU-wide online platform for consumer disputes that arise from online transactions with traders.

  Workplace mediation is widely and successfully utilized in the USA for solely employment purposes both in the private and the public sector. Also, in the United States is a “employment at will” doctrine prevails, that basically means – unless stipulated to the contrary by the parties – the employment relationship can be terminated with immediate effect without any justification (just cause), thus workers do not have access to legal remedies as in the EU where the statutory laws provide a broad protection against arbitrary or unjust termination. Mediation, however, provide an effective solution for employees and workers, even if situated outside the protective scope of labor law.

  While the role of customer/consumer ADR and mediation is increasing throughout the whole European Union, workplace and employment mediation still constitutes a “grey zone”.  In many of the legal instruments of the EU and also in several products of the national legislations, consumers and workers are treated with the same legal awareness, thus protective laws compensate their weaker position in their legal relationships, but as far as the utilization and access of dispute resolution schemes are concerned, a significant but not always reasonable differentiation can be detected. Also, while mediation is an available tool for individual employment matters, still has not been utilized considerably, and remained an instrument only to resolve mostly collective conflicts. Therefore, the aim of this paper to present various styles of mediations from a comparative perspective, to express their biggest advantages and to highlight the areas where mediation could be more suitable to use in the context of the individual disputes of the workplace.