Nach der Einführung des Emissionshandels auf gemeinschaftlicher Ebene vor etwa einem Jahr hat sich die Europäische Kommission für die Erweiterung des Anwendungsbereichs des Systems entschlossen. Da der Luftverkehr und damit die Emissionen aus dem Luftverkehr dermaßen – trotz der technischen Fortschritte – gestiegen sind, sind über die verschiedenen möglichen Instrumente nachzudenken, mit denen im weiteren die negativen Auswirkungen der Treibhausgasemissionen – anfangs nur die Kohlendioxid – aus dem Luftverkehr zu vermeiden sind. Hier können technischen, ökonomischen Lösungen in Frage kommen, doch scheint heute die Einbeziehung des Luftverkehrs ins Emissionshandelssystem am effektivsten zu sein. Damit kann ein Instrument, das sowohl regulatorische, als auch ökonomische Elemente enthält, eingeführt werden. Wegen der eigenartigen Eigenschaften des Luftverkehrs tauchen rechtliche Probleme auf, die von der Kommission baldmöglichst gelöst werden müssen. Solche sind die Kompatibilität einer eventuellen Einbeziehung in das Handelssystem mit dem Chicagoer Abkommen, das die internationale Zivilluftfahrt behandelt und damit Verpflichtungen nicht nur für die Vertragsparteien aus der Europäischen Union, sondern auch für weitere Staaten bestimmt. Die Kompatibilität der Einbeziehung ist auch im Zusammenhang mit dem Kyotoer Protokoll zu überprüfen, nach dem wegen dem Sonderstatus des internationalen Luftverkehrs die internationalen Luftverkehrsemissionen nicht den nationalen Emissionen der Vertragsstaaten des Kyoto-Protokolls zugeordnet sind.

Vor der Erweiterung des Systems ist auch der Kreis der Verpflichteten festzustellen, wobei auch an die geographische Reichweite des Luftverkehrs und die wettbewerbsrechtliche Aspekte zu denken ist. Als weiteres beschreibt der Aufsatz die Frage der Erhebung einer Mineralölsteuer auf Kerosin (sog. „Kerosin-Steuer”) auch für die gewerbliche Luftfahrt, damit die bisherigen steuerlichen Vergünstigungen für den Luftverkehr abgebaut werden könnten. Im Aufsatz wird von der ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) erarbeiteten drei Systeme vorgestellt, nach denen die Emissionen aus dem Luftverkehr in Betracht werden können, unter denen sich sowohl die ICAO, als auch die Europäische Gemeinschaft für das offenes System ausgesprochen haben.

Schließlich werden die eventuellen direkten Auswirkungen der Einführung des Luftverkehrs in das Emissionshandelssystem behandelt.

Az Európai Unióhoz való csatlakozás számos jogi kérdést vet fel, amelyek közül az egyik az acquis communautaires időbeli alkalmazásához köthető. Pontosan melyik pillanattól és mely ügyekre alkalmazzuk az új jogrendet? A Csatlakozási Szerződésekben ez a kérdés a következő módon nyert szabályozást: „A csatlakozás időpontjától kezdődően az eredeti szerződések rendelkezései és az intézmények (…) által a csatlakozást megelőzően elfogadott jogi aktusok az új tagállamok számára kötelezőek, és az említett szerződésekben, illetve az ebben az okmányban megállapított feltételekkel alkalmazandók ezekben az államokban.”

Az így kimondott alapelv alkalmazása azonban nehézségekbe ütközhet, mégpedig az olyan jogi szituációkban, amelyek a csatlakozást megelőző periódusban jöttek létre és jogi hatásaikat vagy azok egy részét már a csatlakozás utáni közegben fejtik ki. Az ilyen helyzetek egy részére még a csatlakozást megelőző jogrend szabályait kell alkalmazni (C-321/97 Andersson vagy C-302/04 Ynos), míg más esetekben (C-43/95 Data Delecta vagy C-122/96 Saldanha) a Közösségi jog alkalmazandó a csatlakozás időpontjától kezdődően. Az ezen esetek közötti különbségtételt szolgálják az Európa-jog időbeli alkalmazhatóságának szabályai, amelyeket az Európai Bíróság ítélkezési gyakorlatából szűrhetünk le.

A dolgozat sorra veszi az általam fontosnak tartott jogeseteket az 1973-ban eldöntött Westzucker ügytől egészen a 2006. januárjában, az Ynos v Varga János ügyben hozott ítéletig.

A Metallurgiki-ban kimondott tétel szerint „a Közösségi jog ab initio és in toto alkalmazandó az új tagállamokra a csatlakozás időpontjától, ettől eltérni csak az átmeneti intézkedésekben előírt módon lehet”. A már említett Data Delecta vagy Saldanha esetekben úgy tűnhet, hogy az EB kiterjesztő módon értelmezi az alapelvet és olyan helyzetekre is előírja a Közösségi jog alkalmazandóságát, amelyek tényállásbeli elemei egytől-egyig a csatlakozás előtti periódusban valósultak meg; azonban az eljárás elhúzódása folytán a nemzeti procedurális szabályokat már a Közösségi jog fényében kell vizsgálni.

Az Andersson ügy jelentős hozadéka a különbségtétel a már véglegesen rendezést nyert esetek (situation définitivement fixée) valamint a függő szituációk (situation continue en cours) között. Az előbbi esetekre a csatlakozás előtti szabályok, míg az utóbbira a csatlakozás utáni (európa-jogi) szabályok érvényesek.

Az egyik első magyar döntéshozatali kérelem nyomán született Ynos ítéletben az EB úgy találta, hogy a kérdéses esetre nem a Közösségi jog az alkalmazandó. A Bíróság ítélete egyfelől illeszkedik az Andersson által meghatározott csapásirányba, másfelől azonban intő jelként is lehet értelmezni az “új fiúk” irányába. A minden korábbi csatlakozási hullámnál nagyobb léptékű 2004-es kibővülés után az Európai Bíróság talán nem véletlenül óvatosabban bánik az acquis alkalmazandóságának kérdésével.

To describe the functions of principles we can say that all of them are fundamental basis of an area of law. They declare or solve concrete debates between the parties. If there is a problem with interpreting of a rule in the civil code, judges has this helping hand. In Germany the development of principles in the field of contract law has a really unique historical root. At the time of BGB’s birth, the German Civil Code did not accept any exculpation under the rule pacta sunt servanda. Moral philosophers acknowledged that a contract as private interest of the parties needs special protection from the state. It is not only a personal relationship, because self welfare leads to welfare of the public. The law has to regulate this field and give instruments of protection for both parties to ensure peace and equality in the field of public relations and moral.

After the First World War, Rechtsmark (German currency) had its deepest point in its history. The inflation was so high that the performance of a contract made before the war was absolutely unfair for the supplier. For the cost of one galloon gas anyone could buy the entire stock after the war. There was a too late and too small reaction from the state for this situation. An Act had been accepted in 1925 about revalorization. The main fault of this Act was the strict and very small applicability in the field of contracts. The regulations of it were applicable only for contracts with large economic potential.

German jurisdiction had to solve the problem. The most difficult part of this process was how to dissolve the strict paradigm of pacta sunt servanda. Oertmann, a German legal expert created the collapse of the foundation of the transaction. It meant that changed circumstances deprive the contract from its ground, the need of the party. Anybody who signs a contract has a need and tries to create all conditions of that specific contract to harmonize with his or her needs and interest. In case of an essential change of circumstances this interest modifies and the original transaction became tremendously onerous for him or her. The doctrine of Oertmann was insisted on pacta sunt servanda, so after the change of circumstances the whole contract failed.

Jurisdiction in Germany accepted Oertmann’s doctrine with a completion. Judges vindicated the right for themselves to modify the contract to be suitable for the new interests of the parties. This modification meant the implementation of clausula rebus sic stantibus into German contract law. It became applicable worldwide in the field of long term relationship of the parties.

In this essay I examine not only the development of these contractual principles in Germany but the effectiveness and functions of them. I describe and define the legal interest of regulating contracts and what is the connection between private and public interest in the field of the law of contracts. As a defect of the contractual procedure non-performance and other breach of a contract have special importance in civil law. Good faith is a basic principle of civil law in Hungary too and in most European civil codes. The interpretation of German good faith theory (Treu und Glauben) is significant from the viewpoint of the judicial modification of contracts. In case of clausula rebus sic stantibus if the party wants to ground his or her claim, he or she has to prove the good faith as a moral standard to be an exculpation under the heavy burden of pacta sunt servanda. The conclusion is that in Germany the basic element of private contracts is not the consent of parties but good faith of them. The socially excepted moral appears through the requirement of good faith of the parties. The law has to ensure that in any period of a contractual relationship this good faith exists.

An examination of the statistical data reveals that the number of marriages concluded has significantly decreased in recent years, accompanied by an increase in divorce cases. In a parallel way, there is a growing number of domestic partnerships.[1]

This study surveys the judicial practice of this field in the past two decades with the intention of attempting to describe and shed some light on the essence of domestic partnership in Hungary by way of discussing some of the most important cases and the relevant provisions of law. In view of the fact that preparation for the codification of the new Civil Code is now under way and new rules are expected to enter into force in 2 or 3 years, the changes anticipated in this area are also briefly addressed in the study. Since the Proposal intends to change the current legal provisions in three areas, special emphasis was laid on these, namely:

1. Under certain conditions, as defined by law, alimony may be awarded to a formal domestic partner.

2. Continued use of the place of residence earlier shared with the former domestic partner is possible also after the termination of the domestic partnership.

3. A former domestic partner may request that the property relations be settled after the termination of the domestic partnership. 

The aim of the present essay is to give an overview of the means of the employment policy through the analysis and construction of the relevant statutory intruments and legal rules.

During the treatment of the means of the employment policy this essay tooks the classification accepted by the scientific literature as a basis therefore it deals with these instruments divided into two big groups.

Among the active types of the means of the employment policy the direct and also the indirect kinds of benefits of the jobless and unemployed are treated here.

Among the passive types of means those instruments are presented which are to succeed the unemployment benefit and the unemployment allowance such as jobsearch benefit and jobsearch allowance.

The definition of ‘employment policy’ is widely construed that is why this definition comprises the classical instruments of Labour Law and in a separate subsection the subsidy of the atypical legal relations of employment are also presented.

Advertising forms are considerable parts of economic activities, the costs of which constitute a growing portion of the expenses of a given enterprise. The mass-appearance of advertisements has altered the relationship between consumers and advertisers, it has restructured consumption habits and the importance of the advertising media. Advertising law defines the restrictions that have to be observed during business and advertising activities. The regulation of advertising is characterized by an approach focusing on content. However, in some cases the legislator also considered it important to determine the form of advertising besides its content. In the case of most advertising media there are only few regulations on form. The Media Act (Act I of 1996) dedicates a whole chapter to restrictions on advertising. The most important part of the Media Act is the regulation of the way commercials can be shown. The regulation of maximum advertising time, the type of programmes which are suitable for advertising and the period of time that can pass between commercials is given priority. 

A la deuxième moitié du XX ième siècle la victime a commancé á jouer un rôle important de nouveau dans les procédures pénales. Les legislateurs veulent assurer les droit de la victime et garantir qu’elle soit indemnisée le plus tôt possible et pour que tout le monde soit content du résultat.Ce sont les cadres de la juridiction restaurative qui en assurent les possibilités.

Dans cet essai premièrement je présente le cadre de la constitution de partie civile dans la législation hongroise. C’est une procédure très intéressante parce qu’il faut appliquer d’un côté le droit civil et la procédure civile et de l’autre le drot pénal et la procédure pénale dans le cadre de la juridiction pénale (dans une procédure).

J’ai analysé le terme de la victime, les règle appliquables et les décisions du juge. J’ai constaté qu’en Hongrie les tribunaux correctionnels ne délibèrent pas les décisions sur le fond dans les cas de partie civile mais ils renvoient les affaires devant les tribunaux civils.

Ensuite, je présente les institution juridique hongroise qui vise á l’entremise dans la procédure pénale. On peut trouver deux institution juridique en vigeur. En premièr lieu il faut mentionner que dans les cadres de la procédure par constitution de partie civil (où la victime soutient l’accuation) il existe une audition personnelles des parties où le but est donc l’arrangement des parties.

Il y a une autre institution juridique qui s’appelle l’ajournement de la mise en accusation. On peut l’appliquer si la peine ne mérite pas de trois ans de prison et il y a beaucop de circonstances atténuantes, le procureur peut décider l’ajournement de la mise en accusation d’une au deux ans. On peut prévoir différentes obligations et règlements du comportement pour le prévenu. Par example on peut prévoir de dédommager la victime avec l ‘accord des parties. J’ai examiné cette institution juridique et son efficacité dans la pratique aussi.

Troisièmement j’ai analysé une institution juridique qui entrera en vigeur le 1er janvier 2007. C’est la médiation pénale. Il y a un cadre de décision européen (2001/220/IB) qui préconise aux États memnbres d’introduire la médiation pénale. Pour pouvoir appliquer cette institution juridique il faut modifier le Code Pénale et la loi de la procédure pénale. C’est le procureur qui aura le droit de la suspension du procès pour maximum six mois et renvoyer l’affaire devant un méditeur. Cette procédure devant le médiateur sera regie par une loi d’exeption.( Il y a déja une projet de la loi). Je présente les problèmes en relation la médiation pénale. En résumé on peut dire que la mise en place et la régulation de la médiation demandent du temps et de l’énergie. Je statue qu’il faut attendre beaucoup de temps en Hongrie pour que l’opinion publique et les justiciables acceptent et appliquent avec efficacité la médiation pénale.

In my study I deal with the connection between the local governments and the Constitution in the aspect of Financial Law.

The local governments’ essential rights have been laid down  in the Constitution in a separate (IX.) chapter. The defence of the local governments is different from the defence of fundamental human rights. The latter has the test of necessity and proportionality. The local governments’ constitutional rights can be restricted until the infringement of its fundamental contents.

I examined the rights of the local governments connected with the Financial Law, so I was engaged mainly in the financial support of it and the right of property and tax assessment. The Constitutional regulation of the financial support is most unique. The difference is that this paragraph (44/A. § (1) c) is not a rule of competence and jurisdiction however an obligation for the state to guarantee the self income and the proper state support to the local governments. The most important own sources are the taxes, which are necessary to discharge the duties. The authority to issue taxes derives from the Constitution - 70/I. § and 44/A. § (1) d. These paragraphs  prescribes that every natural and legal person must contribute to rates and taxes depend on their income and estate.

The local governments may issue taxes within the framework of law, but their legislation is wide-ranging within it, for this reason there are a lot of instructive judgements of the Constitutional Court.

Introduced to reduce obstacles to the free movement of goods and persons, judicial cooperation in civil matters has become part and parcel of the new European area of justice. Creation of this area is meant to simplify the existing legal environment and to reinforce citizens' feeling of being part of a common entity. The Conclusions of the Tampere European Council state in this respect that “in a genuine European Area of Justice individuals and businesses should not be prevented or discouraged from exercising their rights by the incompatibility or complexity of legal or administrative systems in the Member States.”

At present, the judicial cooperation in civil procedures is based on the Hague Programme, adopted by the 2004 Europen Council in Bruxelles.The Hague Programme requires that the Commission should translate the Hague objectives into concrete measures. To this end, the Annex to the Communication from the Commission to the Council and the. European Parliament on the Hague Programme, consists of an Action Plan listing the main actions and measures to be taken over the next five years, including a specific set of deadlines for their presentation to the Council and the European Parliament.

The chapter dealing with this area is named „Strengthening justice”, and it includes amongst others the following tasks:

• Specific Programme on Judicial Cooperation in Civil and Commercial Matters (2007)
• Support by the Union to networks of judicial organisations and institutions (continuous)
• Creating a „European Judicial culture”
• Evaluation of quality of justice (Communication - 2006)
• Creation, from the existing structures, of an effective European training network for judicial authorities for both civil and criminal matters (2007)

The European Union has set itself the objective of maintaining and developing the European Union as an area of freedom, security and justice in which the free movement of persons is ensured. For the gradual establishment of such an area, the Community is to adopt, among others, the measures relating to judicial cooperation in civil matters needed for the proper functioning of the internal market.

The Community has among other measures already adopted Council Regulation (EC) No 1348/2000 of 29 May 2000, on the service in the Member States of judicial and extrajudicial documents in civil or commercial matters; Council Decision 2001/470/EC of 28 May 2001, establishing a European Judicial Network in civil and commercial matters; Council Regulation (EC) No 44/2001 of 22 December 2000 on jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters; Regulation (EC) No 805/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 April 2004, creating a European Enforcement Order for uncontested claims; Council Directive 2002/8/EC, of 27 January 2003, to improve access to justice in cross-border disputes by establishing minimum common rules relating to legal aid for such disputes; Council Regulation (EC) 2201/2003, of 27 November 2003, concerning jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in matrimonial matters and the matters of parental responsibility, repealing Regulation (EC) 1347/2000; Regulation (EC) No 805/2004, of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 April 2004, creating a European Enforcement Order for uncontested claims; Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council creating a European order for payment procedure; Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a European Small Claims Procedure.

The disproportionate cost of litigation for small claims has led many Member States to provide simplified procedures for claims of small value which are intended to provide access to justice at a lower cost, thus influencing one of the three factors that determine the rationales in dispute resolution. The details of these procedures have been investigated and documented in detail in studies prepared for the Commission. The evidence from these reports suggests that the costs and timescale associated with the domestic simplified measures, and thus their use and utility to claimants, varies widely. A 1995 study for the Commission found evidence of how costs of cross-border claims were significant compared to the size of most potential claims, and that these costs varied substantially between Member States. The total costs of pursuing a cross-border claim with a value of € 2.000 was found to vary, depending on the combination of Member States, from € 980 to € 6.600, with an average quoted figure of € 2.489 for a proceeding at the plaintiff’s residence. The study also showed that due to different and conflicting costing rules part of the costs have to be paid even by successful plaintiffs.

On 20 December 2002, the Commission adopted a Green Paper on a European order for payment procedure and on measures to simplify and speed up small claims litigation. The Green Paper launched a consultation on measures concerning the simplification and the speeding up of small claims litigation.

The European Small Claims Procedure is meant to simplify and speed up litigation concerning small claims, whilst reducing costs, by offering an optional tool in addition to the possibilities existing under the laws of the Member States. This Regulation should also make it simpler to obtain the recognition and enforcement of a judgment given in a European Small Claims Procedure in another Member State, including judgements which were initially of a purely domestic nature. In order to facilitate the introduction of the procedure, the claimant should commence the European Small Claims Procedure by completing a claim form and lodging it at the competent court or tribunal. In order to reduce costs and delays, documents should be served on the parties by registered letter with acknowledgment of receipt, or by any simpler means such as simple letter, fax or email. The procedure should be a written procedure, unless an oral hearing is considered necessary by the court. The parties should not be obliged to be represented by a lawyer. The court should be given the possibility to hold a hearing through an audio, video or email conference. It should also be given the possibility to determine the means of proof and the extent of the taking of evidence according to its discretion and admit the taking of evidence through telephone, written statements of witnesses, and audio, video or email conferences. The court should respect the principle of an adversarial process. In order to speed up the resolution of disputes, the judgment should be rendered within six months following the registration of the claim. In order to speed up the recovery of small claims, the judgment should be immediately enforceable notwithstanding any possible appeal and without the condition of the provision of a security. In order to reduce costs, when the unsuccessful party is a natural person and is not represented by a lawyer or another legal professional, he should not be obliged to reimburse the fees of a lawyer or another legal professional of the other party. In order to facilitate recognition and enforcement, a judgment given in a Member State in a European Small Claims Procedure should be recognised and enforceable in another Member State without the need for a declaration of enforceability and without any possibility of opposing its recognition. Since the objectives of the action to be taken namely the establishment of a procedure to simplify and speed up litigation concerning small claims, and reduce costs, cannot be sufficiently achieved by the Member States and can therefore be better achieved at Community level, the Community may adopt measures in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity as set out in Article 5 of the Treaty. In accordance with the principle of proportionality as set out in that Article this Regulation does not go beyond what is necessary to achieve those objectives.

The European Council underlines the need further to enhance work on the creation of a Europe for citizens and the essential role that the setting up of a European Area for Justice will play in thisrespect. A number of measures have already been carried out. Further efforts should be made to facilitate access to justice and judicial cooperation as well as the full employment of mutual recognition. It is of particular importance that borders between countries in Europe no longer constitute an obstacle to the settlement of civil law matters or to the bringing of court proceedings and the enforcement of decisions in civil matters.

Absztrakt nélkül.

Absztrakt nélkül.