Keresés
Keresési eredmények
-
A közérdekű munka speciális jellegének főbb vonásai
Megtekintések száma:56In Hungary there are two types of punishments: principal punishments and supplementary punishments. I examined the labour in the public interest, which is one of the principal punishments. Judges use this punishment barely than imprisonment, fine. Difficult to use this punishment, because it needs many preliminary works. I examined the labour in the public interest’s ruling from the 1950.:II. Criminal Code of General Part to nowadays.
In Hungary a person sentenced to labor in the public interest is obligated to perform the work defined for him in the court sentence. Only such work may be ordered as work in the public interest which the convict, in light of his health condition and education, is presumed to be capable of performing. There are many problems in rule of the labour in the public interest, for example one day of work in the public. As rule of the Criminal Code punishment shall be six hours of work, but other rule is, punishment shall be 4-8 hours of work for one day.
Other interesting rule is, the imprisonment substituting labour in the public interest or the remaining part thereof shall be established in such a way that one day of labour in the public interest shall correspond to one day of imprisonment. In my opinion it would be better, if the imprisonment substituting labour in the public interest or the remaining part thereof shall be established in fine.
On the other hand I suggested to use this punishment if a person younger than 18 years old. I think if a person is 16 years old, this punishment can be more effective than other punishments.
I found many differences, and many similarities between Hungarian and international Criminal Codes, Propositions, and finally I wrote some important, new point to change the rules.
-
A szerződési jog alapelveinek értelmezése és funkciói a német polgári jogban
Megtekintések száma:46To describe the functions of principles we can say that all of them are fundamental basis of an area of law. They declare or solve concrete debates between the parties. If there is a problem with interpreting of a rule in the civil code, judges has this helping hand. In Germany the development of principles in the field of contract law has a really unique historical root. At the time of BGB’s birth, the German Civil Code did not accept any exculpation under the rule pacta sunt servanda. Moral philosophers acknowledged that a contract as private interest of the parties needs special protection from the state. It is not only a personal relationship, because self welfare leads to welfare of the public. The law has to regulate this field and give instruments of protection for both parties to ensure peace and equality in the field of public relations and moral.
After the First World War, Rechtsmark (German currency) had its deepest point in its history. The inflation was so high that the performance of a contract made before the war was absolutely unfair for the supplier. For the cost of one galloon gas anyone could buy the entire stock after the war. There was a too late and too small reaction from the state for this situation. An Act had been accepted in 1925 about revalorization. The main fault of this Act was the strict and very small applicability in the field of contracts. The regulations of it were applicable only for contracts with large economic potential.
German jurisdiction had to solve the problem. The most difficult part of this process was how to dissolve the strict paradigm of pacta sunt servanda. Oertmann, a German legal expert created the collapse of the foundation of the transaction. It meant that changed circumstances deprive the contract from its ground, the need of the party. Anybody who signs a contract has a need and tries to create all conditions of that specific contract to harmonize with his or her needs and interest. In case of an essential change of circumstances this interest modifies and the original transaction became tremendously onerous for him or her. The doctrine of Oertmann was insisted on pacta sunt servanda, so after the change of circumstances the whole contract failed.
Jurisdiction in Germany accepted Oertmann’s doctrine with a completion. Judges vindicated the right for themselves to modify the contract to be suitable for the new interests of the parties. This modification meant the implementation of clausula rebus sic stantibus into German contract law. It became applicable worldwide in the field of long term relationship of the parties.
In this essay I examine not only the development of these contractual principles in Germany but the effectiveness and functions of them. I describe and define the legal interest of regulating contracts and what is the connection between private and public interest in the field of the law of contracts. As a defect of the contractual procedure non-performance and other breach of a contract have special importance in civil law. Good faith is a basic principle of civil law in Hungary too and in most European civil codes. The interpretation of German good faith theory (Treu und Glauben) is significant from the viewpoint of the judicial modification of contracts. In case of clausula rebus sic stantibus if the party wants to ground his or her claim, he or she has to prove the good faith as a moral standard to be an exculpation under the heavy burden of pacta sunt servanda. The conclusion is that in Germany the basic element of private contracts is not the consent of parties but good faith of them. The socially excepted moral appears through the requirement of good faith of the parties. The law has to ensure that in any period of a contractual relationship this good faith exists.
-
A kamat szerepe a polgári peres eljárásokban
42-46Megtekintések száma:256A tanulmány a kamattal kapcsolatos különböző igények polgári perben való érvényesítését, azok speciális perjogi szabályait tekinti át, hangsúlyozva, hogy a pénzkövetelések érvényesítéséhez képest eljárásjogi szempontból kevés egyedi normával találkozhatunk az eljárási kódexben. Összeveti ugyanakkor az írás az 1952. évi III. törvény és az új Pp., a 2016. évi CXXX. törvény kamattal kapcsolatos rendelkezéseit és igyekszik adekvát válaszokat adni a szabályozási hiátusból eredő jogalkalmazási kérdésekre. A cikk megállapítása szerint a perjog általában a főköveteléssel együtt érvényesített járulékokra vonatkozóan egységesen fogalmaz meg néhány egyedi eljárásjogi rendelkezést, melyek a főkövetelés járulékaként a kamatra is irányadóak, elenyésző a tisztán kamatspecifikus rendelkezések száma hatályos perjogunkban. Kitér az elemzés a pertárgy érték meghatározása, a kereseti kérelemhez kötöttség, az elsőfokú ítélet kamatra vonatkozó rendelkezései elleni fellebbezés, a kamatot érintő keresetfelemelés másodfokon való megengedhetősége és a jogerős ítéletnek kizárólag a kamatot érintő rendelkezései elleni felülvizsgálati kérelem megengedhetősége kapcsán a kamatot érintő egyedi törvényi rendelkezésekre és eseti bírósági döntések elemzése útján értékeli a judikatúra irányait. Megállapítja a szerző, hogy az egységes és koherens ítélkezési gyakorlat az egyértelmű törvényi rendelkezésekre alapítottan megfelelően szolgálja az igényérvényesítő felek érdekeit.
-
A versenytilalmi megállapodás
20-28Megtekintések száma:215The “agreement on non-competition” is essentially the extension of the protection of the basic economic interest of the employer. While during the employment relationship several labor law provisions protect the interest of both parties, the “agreement on non-competition” is designed to protect the employer’s interests after the termination of the relationship. This means – in return for financial compensation – the former employee needs to refrain from any kind of business competition against his/her former employer. This necessarily involves financial compensation and may have several restrictions, such business or geographical area or time.
The previous Labor Code did not specify for detailed regulation of the issue and the law remained rather vague. It merely referred to the fact that parties – based on their own free will – may enter into such agreement. However the new Labor Code contains explicit regulations under title XVIII of the Act as “Particular Agreements Related to Employment”.
The “agreement on non-competition” belongs to the field of employment law. Unlike the previous Labor Code that categorized this possible agreement as of purely civil law in nature, the new Labor Code declares it to belong under the scope of the Labor Code. The previous regulation even ordered the provisions of the Civil Code to be applied to such agreements however the new legislation brought a conceptual change.
The currently effective regulation provides for a 2-year limitation on such conduct on the employee’s part that would create competition with the employer. The exact amount of the consideration payable for this obligation remains to be decided by the parties however the Labor Code suggests that it shall be based on how difficult the applied restrictions make it for the employee to find another job with his qualifications and experience. As a basic limit the law provides that the amount shall not be less than one-third of the base wage payable for the same period of time.
The “agreement on non-competition” is not to be confused with similar legal institutions. The paper points out two close similarities in the legal system. One being the employee’s obligation of confidentiality; this prevails after termination of the employment relationship as well without any time or similar restrictions and even without any financial compensation. The other one is the so called “non-compete” agreement from the field of competition law. This is applicable after takeovers where the seller shall refrain from engaging into business in the same area as the buyer.
In the field of labor law the time period for the “agreement on non-competition” is up to the agreement of the parties however the new law invokes an upper limit of two years that is following the termination of the employment relationship. This is a decrease from the previous regulation that provided for a period of three years. The agreement can be modified by the consent of both parties just like the employment contract or civil law agreements.
In case of violation of the agreement three cases are to be analyzed. The first is the case of the employee breaching the provisions of the contract. In this case the employee is liable for damages towards his/her former employer. The provisions of the new Civil Code and those of the Labor Code are to be applied to the damages. In the second case the employer may request an injunction to prohibit the employee from any conduct breaching the agreement while the third case involves the breach of the agreement on the employee’s part for which the rules of the Civil Code and the Labor Code are to be applied as well.
-
A társasági jogviszonyok szabályozása a német polgári jogi társaságban
Megtekintések száma:49Partnership under the civil code is a harsh institution in Hungarian legal system. Despite of this fact, most of the European countries apply this legal entity a lot as a background for other, more complicated corporate forms. In my essay I demonstrate those rules in German Civil Code (BGB), which show the importance and opportunities of these partnerships.
If we would like to describe the essentials of partnerships under the Civil Code, the most important question is the legal relations from both inner and external point of view. Internal relations mean an obligation between the parties, who form this partnership. It is natural that we can find both rights and commitments between founders. This is a contract but BGB says that all parties have equal rights and commitments in the same partnership. As a general rule of the Code, it is permissive, not cogent. BGB has basic regulation for operating such a partnership, but can be useful if founders live with this permissive opportunity and shape special rules for their partnership, which fit to their aims, functions, different financial potential of the parties.
There is a chance for founders to neglect building a whole structure and organization for their partnership, if they want to operate it as an inner partnership, without external relations, focusing only for the rights and omissions between the parties.
From all contract that establishes a partnership under the Civil Code membership rights follow. These rights cannot be transferred. A distinction can be made between administrational, common business management and financial rights. Rights to common business management can consist of right to information, right to supervision or the most important right to vote. Financial rights gather typical rights such as right to dividend or liquidity proportion. These rights are social omissions from the viewpoint of the partnership itself, as these are for the interest of the parties.
The most important omissions of the founders are financial contribution to establish the partnership. This regulation results from that partnership is to promote common aim of the founders, and to achieve this, all of them have to make available pecuniary or non-pecuniary assets. According to a special rule of BGB, over against the other corporate forms, members of the partnership have no omission to increase or complete their assets.
Management of the partnership is not only a right but an obligation too. A special omission is that all members and founders have to be loyal to the partnership. Because of the strong partnership character of this corporate form, this means that members have to keep the interest and aim of the partnership in view. They all are responsible for achieving the aim of the partnership and nobody can sit as a beneficiary. Loyal members have to keep secrets in connection with operating the partnership and of course the sudden obligation to inform the others of all events and experiences, which are in tight connection with the partnership and the interests of the parties. If any of the members breach these obligations, rules of damages can be applied in BGB.
Assets of the partnership are special, because no separated corporate assets form. Financial and non-pecuniary contribution becomes the assets of the community of members. It is undividable and common. But these common assets are strictly separated from the private assets of the parties. Rights for profit and deficit are equal, but this permissive rule allows different regulation in the contract. The only cogent sentence is the prohibition of societas leoniana, i.e. nobody can be precluded of profit and deficit.
External relations mean the representation of the partnership. In this case the most important law is the contract itself. In case of disagreement between the parties, there is a helping rule of BGB: members can act as a body. If we take into consideration the rules of liability, we can say that because of the lack of legal capacity of the partnership, individual liability has its important role. Generally this liability is unlimited, but there is a chance to agree with the creditor to limit liability. But this limitation is only valid for that legal transaction.
Rules for partnerships under the Civil Code in Germany are more detailed and nuanced than in Hungary. Partnership is the basic type of civil law partnerships, such as limited partnership or general partnership. We have to consider that building up a more coherent regulation for these partnerships can be useful to categorize atypical corporations.
-
Gondolatok a pótmagánvádról
Megtekintések száma:68In Hungary the new code of criminal procedure established a new legal institution to the Hungarian legal system: accessory private prosecution. This kind of private prosecution gives opportunity to the afflicted person to continue penal procedure in case of negative sentences from investigation authorities. If the prosecutor or the investigation authority stops proceeding or the prosecutor sets aside, withdraws formal accusation, afflicted person can substitute them during a penal procedure and has a right to claim the continuation of it. Our valid code does not limit the field of crimes this legal institution of accessory private prosecution can be applied. But there are some strict reasons, which limit this right of the afflicted person. If the investigation authorities neglected formal accusation because of childhood, death, prescription, clemency, prohibition of ne bis in idem, accessory private prosecution cannot be applied.
Pros of accessory private prosecution can be found in the rights of afflicted persons. Criminal power of the state cannot be absolute, so we have to give the right for the injured to judge whether he insists on taking the responsibility of the perpetrator despite the opposite opinion of public bodies. This legal institution can help omissions of prosecutors to be remedied. Practicing this right depends on the stadium of the procedure. During the investigation period or the period of formal accusation reasons for accessory private prosecution are different.
According to the new rules of the code, applying an advocate in the procedure is an obligation for the afflicted person. This regulation ensures that the structure of penal proceedings cannot be changed basically. In a normal procedure there is always a professional expert, the prosecutor on the side of accusation. That is why the code does not permit accusation without applying an advocate.
Costs are interesting question in case of accessory private prosecution. In popular action procedures costs are paid by the state. When the afflicted person practices the right of accessory private prosecution, state pays in advance, but if perpetrator is acquitted or the court stops proceeding, costs should be paid by the private prosecutor himself. There are some rules to ease this burden for the afflicted person: if he has bad financial capacity and he can certify this circumstance, court can authorize him not to pay for the fee of the advocate.
There is a special question in connection with accessory private prosecution: representation of the state. In these procedures the afflicted person is the state or one of the state bodies itself. There are two points of view to answer the question: who is authorized to represent the state as an accessory private prosecutor during a penal procedure. First we have to make difference between the injuries: if the injury is against the state while practising public authority, the injured party is the state itself. But if the injury hit the state as a civil legal entity, a possessor, the right to claim is in the hand of that public body, which was entrusted to handle the injured property. This theory means that in case of injuries against the public author state, only the prosecutor can represent it, so there is no chance for accessory private prosecution.
The other solution for this problem has its starting point that in every crime against public property, accessory private prosecution can be applied. In this case the state can be represented by that part of it, which has interest. Although there are no jurisdiction in this question, because accessory private prosecution was established by the new code from 1st July 2003 after fifty years into the Hungarian legal practice. According to the regulations of the code, we can find the following sentence: afflicted person is whose right or legal interest was hurt or endangered by the crime. Analyzing this definition the argument can be read previously is decent for those situations, when we would like to find the legal representative of the state as an accessory private prosecutor.
Accessory private prosecution is a good solution that fits to the new directions of law development, to increase rights of the afflicted person. Naturally, time needs to become a well-adopted legal institution in Hungarian legal system after half a century silence.
-
A magyar kollektív munkajog egyes jogértelmezési kérdéseiről
77-87Megtekintések száma:62The primary and outstanding legal policy objective of Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (hereinafter Mt. with its Hungarian abbreviation) is to extend the opportunities of collective autonomy and the regulatory role of agreements concluded between entities subject to collective labour law. With a view to this, the content of the legal institution has been significantly altered, establishing a „complex system” of specific rules that are instrumental in generating a system. The Labour Code is very often characterised as an especially complex piece of legislation, a „law intended for lawyers”, though it is one of the laws that are widely referred to and used, applied by people other than lawyers, including the classic actors (entities) of collective labour law. Below I will underline five regulatory „contradictions” in the area of collective labour law, which due to the lack of sufficient clarity and various ways of possible interpretation might become the source of legal disputes and conflicts of interest between the entities of collective labour law. These critical observations and proposals - which are far from being exhaustive - are related to the conclusion, amendment and termination of collective agreements, and the exercise of certain trade union rights.
Thus, in the paper I will analyse the issues related to the conditions of collective agreements concluded by multiple employers from the perspective of workers (trade unions); the contradictions of the situation of the trade unions becoming entitled to conclude collective agreements subsequently; the possibilities for a trade union losing its capacity to conclude collective agreements and its consequences for the workers (the rate of unionisation dropping below 10% at the employer concerned); the problems related to the various levels of hierarchy in trade union structures; and finally, I will discuss issues of establishing and calculating the working time allowance, the grounds for and problems of its application.
-
A szennyező fizet elvének megjelenése a magyar polgári jogban, különös tekintettel a veszélyes üzemi felelősség kérdéseire
89-106Megtekintések száma:84The polluter pays principle is one of the basic principles of international environmental law
mentioned directly firstly only in 1972, however the principle were declared in 1929 in the
well-known Trail Smelter Case. The polluter pays is an economical principle, and in the
meaning of this principle the costs of pollution shall be shared between industrial companies
and consumers. Taking into consideration that after applying this principle price of products
will be higher than before, industrial companies shall reduce their pollution in the interest of
their (and their products’) competitiveness. Seeing the development of the principle in EU
level, the polluter pays were mentioned first time in the first „programme of action of the
European Communities on the environment” adopted in 1973. However it is questionable
what polluter, pollution, obligation of polluter and costs of pollution mean exactly, and for
this reason this principle cannot be applied automatically.
In this study I try to examine how the polluter pays principle works in the Hungarian national
law, especially in the Hungarian Civil Code. For this reason I examine the applicability of
Article 345 of the Hungarian Civil Code („Damages Originating from Hazardous
Operations”), with special regard to the case-law of the Hungarian civil courts. I also try to
introduce the possibilities and obligations of the public prosecutor in environmental issues. -
A „távollétes ügyek” egyes elméleti és gyakorlati kérdései a büntetőeljárásban
Megtekintések száma:56The idea of simplification of the law of criminal procedure has been an interesting topic in the science of law for a long time. Practical necessities, namely the overburdening of the criminal courts and the new challenges of the criminal law called this concept into life. Finishing up a procedure in a reasonable time limit is a very crucial interest – as it was pointed out several times by the Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers and also the Hungarian Constitutional Court. As the international principle declared in the Human Rights says everyone has the right to plead its case within a reasonable period and it can only be achieved that way.
Because of the reasonable time limit required for a procedure, various simplifications of methods have been introduced into the national systems of criminal procedure. As a part of this process several legal institutions were introduced in the Hungarian law system aiming to accelerate the legal procedure. One of them, which is called special procedure against absent accused, is regulated by Chapter XXIV. of the Law of Criminal Procedure.
This essay deals with this special procedure in details. Firstly I show through a short international outlook how the procedure against absent accused appears in the practice of the European Council and the European Union. Hereafter a certain case is examined in details where the European Court for Human Rights considered the necessity of the accused person’s appearance. The Court established a principle if the absence of the accused had hurt the requirements of the fair trial. According to this the appearance of the accused person is necessary if it could play a role in the forming of the Court’s opinion.
Next, I examine the problems connected to the Hungarian regulations because recently serious constitutional worries have appeared related to this legal institution. As a result of this the Constitutional Court made its decision (n. 14/2004) and found many paragraphs of the then existing legal institution unconstitutional. Based on this Decision I go through in details all the problems and requirements related to this procedure. In the light of this, the regulation effective from the 1st of January, 2005 is described, which – according to my opinion – meets the requirements made by the Constitutional Court, so it is exceptional and provisional.
In the next chapter certain practical experiences of the procedure against absent accused are examined. Here it is stated that the application of this legal institution is the rarest among the legal institutions aiming the acceleration of legal procedures. I explain it by the fact that this is a relatively young legal institution and there was not enough time since it was introduced to give certain conclusions, moreover the application is limited concerning the range of individuals. As a conclusion it can be stated that the application is more common in those cases where the accused is abroad but does not stay in an unknown place. I call the attention to some problems emerged in the practice as the protection of the accused, or the delivery of the copy of indictment and summons, etc.
As a final conclusion it can be stated that using this legal institution is not so common but the importance of this will increase in the future by joining to the EU because of the easier way of crossing the boards. Hopefully the regulation, which suits to the requirements of the Constitutional Court, will be proper to gain its original aim, namely to simplify and accelerate the legal procedure.
-
A szülői felügyeleti jog megszüntetésének hatályos jogi szabályozása a Polgári Törvénykönyvben
12-18Megtekintések száma:171Being a judge practicing on the area of the law of crimes I rarely come across with the need to apply civil law. Nevertheless, a handful legal concepts may be applied also by criminal courts. One of these concepts is the termination of parental control. Before turning to relevant case analysis in my study, I focus on the principle of the "child's best interest" which is referred to under article 3 of the New York Convention on the rights of children and which has a general fundamental applicability in respect of all provisions of the Convention. This principle must apply not only in civil, but also in criminal proceedings and generally in all types of proceedings irrespective of the area of law such proceedings fall under. Special emphasis is attributed to the legal consequences of terminating parental control and to the distinction of cases where the termination of parental control by the court is mandatory and where such a decision is made in the discretion of the court. I pay separate attention to cases where the court has convicted the parent of a crime committed wilfully against the convicted person's own child and in which cases the convicted person is sentenced to prisonment and as a result of these the criminal court has competence to order the termination of parental control. I address also some issues relating to matters of proof and evidence in connection with crimes of domestic violence. Finally, I explain the nature of a child-focused jurisdiction through the presentation of the Hungarian system which ensures to respect and to give effect to the rights of children to the maximum extent possible. The ability of providing special treatment for children in court proceedings is of the utmost importance.
-
A személyiségi jogok védelme a reklámtörvény tükrében
Megtekintések száma:92There is a significant inconsistency within the domain of enforcement of inherent rights in the Hungarian regulation. The protection of the inherent rights is based on the section 75 of Act IV of 1959 (hereinafter: „Civil Code”), which provides that inherent rights shall be observed by everyone and inherent rights are protected by law.
The lack of consistency can be led back to the difference between the provisions of the Civil Code and Act LVIII of 1997 on Business Advertising Activity. Under Section 85 of the Civil Code inherent rights may only be enforced in person.
There are two exceptions to the above rule laid down in the Civil Code:
- The legal representative of an incompetent person, or the relative or conservator of a missing person whose whereabouts are unknown shall be entitled to proceed in the protection of that person's inherent rights.
- In the case of impairment to the memory of a deceased person, the relative and/or the person having been named as the heir apparent in the will of the deceased shall be entitled to file a court action. If conduct causing defamation to a deceased person (former legal person) infringes upon the public interest, the public prosecutor shall also be entitled to enforce this inherent right.
The Act on Business Advertising Activity provides for several general advertising prohibitions and restrictions. Under Section 4 of this act advertising may not be published if it infringes personal rights, respect for the deceased or rights related to the protection of personal data. Under Section 16 of this act advertising control proceedings may be initiated upon request or ex officio. Based on the regulation of the Act on Business Advertising Activity advertising control proceedings may be requested by any person whose rights or rightful interests, or legal status is injured by violation of any provisions relating to commercial advertising activity. If the aggrieved consumer cannot be identified, or if enforcement of the claims is inappropriate considering the number of consumers injured, administrative agencies or non-governmental organizations providing for consumer interests shall also be entitled to initiate proceedings.
When the regulations of the Civil Code on enforcement of inherent rights are compared with that of the Act on Business Advertising Activity, it can be established that provisions of the latter act are not in compliance with the provisions of the Civil Code. On the basis of the decision No. 1270/B/1997 of the Hungarian Constitutional Court, the inconsistency is not significant, the different regulatory of the mentioned acts is not unconstitutional. I take the view that in order to achieve consistent regulation the Act on Business Advertising Activity should be modified by prohibiting the advertising control proceedings initiated ex officio in relation to the advertisings which infringe personal rights.
-
A nemzeti vagyon kezelésének alapelvei, különös tekintettel az átláthatóságra
85-96.Megtekintések száma:150Magyarország Alaptörvénye rögzíti, hogy az állam és a helyi önkormányzatok tulajdona nemzeti vagyonnak minősül. A nemzeti vagyon kezelésének és védelmének célja a közérdek szolgálata, a közös szükségletek kielégítése és a természeti erőforrások megóvása, valamint a jövő nemzedékek szükségleteinek figyelembevétele. Az állam és a helyi önkormányzatok tulajdonában álló gazdálkodó szervezetek – így a gazdasági társaságok is - törvényben meghatározott módon, önállóan és felelősen gazdálkodnak a törvényesség, a célszerűség és az eredményesség követelményei szerint. A vagyonkezelésre és a vagyon megőrzésére irányadó speciális követelményeket a nemzeti vagyonról szóló 2011. évi CXCVI. törvény határozza meg, továbbá az állami vagyonról szóló 2007. évi CVI. törvény preambuluma is tartalmaz bizonyos követelményeket.
A fentiek alapján a nemzeti vagyonba tartozó vagyonelemek kezelése és védelme a magántulajdonban álló vagyonelemekhez képest sajátos elvek szerint zajlik. A köztulajdonban álló gazdasági társaságok nemzetgazdasági szempontból kiemelt jelentőséggel bírnak, tekintettel arra, hogy a GDP meghatározó részét ezek a szervezetek állítják elő, jelentős szerepet töltenek be a foglalkoztatásban, jellemzően közszolgáltatásokat biztosítanak, továbbá közpénzzel gazdálkodnak. Ebből következően ezeknek a társaságoknak a saját vagyonukat is a speciális gazdálkodási követelményekre tekintettel kell kezelniük. A jelen tanulmányban ezeket a követelményeket mutatjuk be és azok tartalmát vizsgáljuk meg, kitérve az egymáshoz való viszonyukra is.
Az egyik legfontosabb vagyongazdálkodási követelmény az átláthatóság, mivel ezek a társaságok közpénzzel gazdálkodnak és az Alaptörvény szerint a közpénzekkel gazdálkodó minden szervezet köteles a nyilvánosság előtt elszámolni a közpénzekre vonatkozó gazdálkodásával. A közpénzeket és a nemzeti vagyont az átláthatóság és a közélet tisztaságának elve szerint kell kezelni. A közpénzekre és a nemzeti vagyonra vonatkozó adatok közérdekű adatok. Különös figyelmet fordítunk az átláthatóság követelményére azáltal, hogy bemutatjuk a vonatkozó jogi szabályozást és összefoglaljuk az elmúlt évek releváns bírósági döntéseinek a legmeghatározóbb megállapításait. A bíróságok határozataikban értelmezték az átláthatóság követelményét a köztulajdonban álló gazdasági társaságokkal kapcsolatban, továbbá az átláthatóság követelménye és az üzleti titkok védelme közötti kapcsolatot is elemezték.
-
Előreláthatósági klauzula a szerződések jogában
Megtekintések száma:57The essay is about the clause of foreseeability in connection with damages for breach of a contract. This seems to be a constant problem throughout the history of law how and when it is reasonably to limit the amount of damages in case of breach.
The general principle of full compensation originates in the main purpose of private law, restoring the violated financial situation. At the same time in business relations it often happens that damages occurred as consequences of breach highly exceed the contractual interest of the party and generate indirect damages independent from the violator’s influence. This is considered to be the starting point of the dilemma about restricting the damages availably for compensation.
Full compensation and its relation to breach of a contract occurred in the Hungarian jurisprudence many times. Miklós Világhy suggested the reconsideration of full compensation in contract law in 1971. Attila Harmathy also suggested the implementation of foreseeability clause in the rules of contract law as the ‘best possible way to treat business relations between the parties’.
Due to the historic and social differences various forms of foreseeability are known in the legal systems.
The study examines the development of foreseeability, its first codification in the French Napoleonic Code Civil, its application in the law of the USA and some significant sentences of English courts. The first application of foreseeability was in the infamous Hadley v. Baxendale case, in which an English court worked out the meaning of contemplation rules. In the case of Victoria Laundry Ld. v. Newman Industries Ld. (1949) the court defined the meaning of foreseeability. According to the sentence of the case damages are limited to those that were foreseeable for the party at the time of entering a contract. The study also analyzes the German model of restricting damages of breach. The German theory ensures the possibility of exoneration for the violator if the other party failed to give proper information about the unusual danger of breach in the particular case. If the entitled party acted intentionally, the German law accepts exoneration. The essay demonstrates the adequate causality conception of the German law. This theory states that an act can only be the probable cause if – due to the normal and reasonable procession – it is able to cause such consequence. In our opinion foreseeability gives a stricter and much better solution of restricting damages with a more objective measurement for the obliged party on how to calculate his behavior in a certain contractual relation. The amount of risk can be predicted if the rules of damages for breach are based on foreseeability rather than adequate causality.
The new Hungarian Civil Code plans to establish objective liability in contract law. The only exoneration can be the successful reference to unavoidable external cause. Beside this stricter liability the new Civil Code also introduce the possibility of limitation in damages, the application of foreseeability clause. This seems to be a significant preference for the obliged party. As in the Hungarian legal history foreseeability clause was never used, it is an essential question how judicature will interpret the rule in practice. In our opinion for an adequate application of the new clause it is necessary to take a closer look at the United Nations Convention on the International Sale of Goods (CISG), the Principles of European Contract Law (PECL) and the interpretation in the American and English case law. This study tries to give some help for it.
-
A GDPR-ról – különös tekintettel a könyvtárakra és levéltárakra
63-75Megtekintések száma:70Nowadays data has become one of the most important value which raises the question of protecting personal data. The European Union responds to the challenge by legal instruments: since 25 May 2018 it has been obligatory for the member states to apply GDPR. In the article, first I study the novelties of GDPR. Then I examine to what extent the provisions apply to libraries and archives.
The novelties can be divided into several larger groups. Some of them belong to the data subjects (data portability, right to be forgotten, pseudonymisation), the other parts are principles like data protection by design and by default or the closely related accountability principle. The Regulation also introduces a new legal institution, the data-protection impact assessment and requires the notification of personal data breach. Concerning the expected impacts, it is clear that the Regulation strengthens the rights of the data subjects but imposes new obligations on data controllers and strengthens the role of control. GDPR is a determinative law for the undertakings and business life, and it must also be applied by libraries and archives. For archiving purposes in the public interest, however, the Regulation allows for exemptions concerning libraries and archives. The provisions require libraries and archives to identify the risks that may occur while processing personal data as well as to examine their regulations.
-
A büntetéskiszabási szemlélet alakulása – a büntető kódex folyamatos módosításának tükrében
96-110Megtekintések száma:54The criminal code has had a number of essential revisions during the past years, which has received distinct viewpoints concerning the improvement of punishments from the judiciary in criminal cases. The reasons of modifications can be explained mainly by the different penalty politics coming into prominence, occasionally having respect for different social approaches. It is periodically distinct which activities are indictable offences, which of the punishments serve the prevention of committing an act of crime the best in the fight against criminality. It is interesting to study how these sweeping changes can appear and effect in the daily legal activities. How far can the changes lobby the judges and prosecutors? Which punishment is ideal in the case - suiting to the aim of punishment – in the interest of the protection of society? As a result, analyzing judgments and interviewing some professional jurists (as far as I can) the different requirementson infliction of punishments do not appear immediately in practice and do not appear in the similar way concerning the functions of judges and prosecutors. It is not machines that pass judgement in a case, which could modify the expectation concerning the result.
-
A szabadság szabályozása és joggyakorlati szempontú értékelése, különös tekintettel az igény érvényesítésére
127-152Megtekintések száma:94A tanulmány a szabadságra vonatkozó legfontosabb szabályokat járja körül. A célom az volt, hogy segítséget nyújtsak a munkavállalóknak és a munkáltatóknak abban, hogy ki rendelkezik a szabadsággal, mikor kell a szabadságot kiadni, hosszabb tartamú keresőképtelenség után jár-e szabadság, kiadható-e heti egy nap szabadság. Választ adok arra, hogy mi a teendő az év végéig ki nem adott szabadsággal, a munkáltató gazdasági érdeke indokolhatja-e annak megszakítását, lehet-e és mikor azt pénzben megváltani, és az ez irányú igény meddig érvényesíthető, azaz mikor következik be az elévülés. Bemutatom azt is, hogy mi a megoldás a munkaviszony megszűnése, vagy megszüntetése esetén, amikor a munkavállaló kevesebb, vagy éppen több szabadságot vett ki, mint ami időarányosan megillette volna. Fókuszba helyezem, hogy kinek mit kell bizonyítani az eredményes igényérvényesítéshez, milyen jelentősége van a munkáltató nyilvántartási kötelezettségének. A célom elérésében szemléltetem a szabadság európai uniós és hazai szabályozását és felhasználtam az Európai Unió Bíróságának és a Kúria néhány érdekes és irányadó döntését is. A téma végére érve arra a következtetésre jutottam, hogy a bíróságok az eléjük kerülő egyedi ügyekben igyekeznek a jogszabály helyes értelmezését megadni, melyek precedens jellegüknél fogva más ügyekben is kötelező érvényűek.
-
Őslakos népek Európában? - Az európai emberi jogvédelmi mechanizmus őslakos népekkel kapcsolatos joggyakorlatának aktuális kérdései
32-44Megtekintések száma:51The aim of the current study is to examine the jurisprudence of the European Human Rights Mechanism (hereafter: EHRM), focusing on the three most common issues that indigenous peoples living on the European Continent has to face. First, the modern economic activities, which affect their traditional livelihoods. Second, the difficulties of proving their land claims due to the unwritten nature of their culture. Finally, the threat of relocation, which causes severe problems considering their close links to the traditionally occupied lands. Regarding the first issue the author examines how the EHRM developed its jurisprudence from the initial negative attitude of the European Commission on Human Rights (hereafter: ECHR) – which ceased to exist in 1998 – to the more receptive attitude of the European Court of Human Right (hereafter: ECtHR). The main question regarding the second issue is the ability of the EHRM to accept the laws and traditions of a significantly different society as equal. Until the recent times, the ECtHR – and former ECHR – only accepted written proof as authentic. Last, but not least the author introduces three cases in which indigenous peoples had been removed from their ancient lands, and have not been allowed to return ever since. Considering their close relation with their lands – which serves as basis of cultural identity for them – the result is devastating.
Having regard to the above mentioned jurisprudence, three questions arise. First, has the jurisprudence of the EHRM evolved over the years; second – which forecasts the answer for the first question – why does granting effective protection for indigenous peoples still cause problems to the ECtHR? Third, are there any signs of change in the jurisdiction? The answer is complex: the jurisprudence of the ECtHR is definitely evolved; however it still does not reach the level of protection offered by the Inter-American System, which acts as a pioneer on the field of protecting indigenous rights, closely followed by the African System. The attitude of the EHRM is mainly attributable to historical and social reasons creating serious obstacles for the ECtHR. Considering the example of the Inter-American and the African Systems the main question is whether the judges of the ECtHR and the policy makers have the determination to exceed these barriers.
-
Az érzelmek felfedezése : – avagy a „law and emotion scholarship” a jogelméletben
47-53.Megtekintések száma:150Az „ideális bíró” nem ismeri az érzelmeket. A bírói székben ülve minden érzelmet kizárva objektíven és racionálisan hozza meg döntéseit. A jogelméleti gondolkodásban egészen az elmúlt pár évtizedig ez az egyelten lehetséges bírói ideál élt és tagadhatatlanul nagyon erősen van jelen mind a mai napig. Azonban az 1960-as évektől kezdődően az angolszász jogi kultúrában, elsősorban az Amerikai Egyesült Államokban, szemléletváltás indult el. Gyors fejlődésnek indultak a jogot interdiszciplináris igénnyel vizsgáló irányzatok. Önálló irányzattá vált a jogelméleti gondolkodáson belül a Critical Legal Studies mozgalom. Emellett óriási előrelépés történt az érzelmek tudományos vizsgálata terén is, ahol mind a pszichológia, mind az idegrendszert vizsgáló neurotudományok komoly eredményeket értek el. Mindezen tényezők együttesen alapozták meg a jog és érzelem mozgalom (Law and Emotion Scholarship) megjelenését. A mozgalom egy kialakulóban lévő interdiszciplináris terület, amely a jog, pszichológia, irodalom, közgazdaságtan és filozófia területéről egyesíti azokat a tudósokat, akik határozott érdeklődéssel fordulnak a jog jelenségei és az érzelmek kölcsönhatásának vizsgálata felé. Kutatásomban elsősorban a mozgalom bírói ítélkezéssel kapcsolatos megállapításaira koncentrálok, vizsgálva azt, hogy hogyan kaphatnak szerepet az érzelmek a bírói döntéshozatalban. Hiszen a jog és érzelem mozgalom képviselői – a hús-vér bírák valóságát figyelembe véve – megkérdőjelezik annak gondolatát, hogy létezhet érzelemmentes bíráskodás.
-
Termékszavatosság – egy új jogintézmény a fogyasztói érdekek védelmében
2-7Megtekintések száma:48This study presents the product warranty, a new element of the Hungarian system of law. The author describes the main features of product warranty in comparison with warranty and product liability. The author states some comments on the regulation. In the end the importance of product warranty is presented by stating a case.
Egy új jogi szabályozás megjelenésekor adott a lehetőség az elméleti és gyakorlati szakemberek számára, hogy a korábbi normaszöveghez történő hasonlítással tárják fel és elemezzék a változásokat. A Polgári Törvénykönyvről szóló 2013. évi V. törvény (Ptk.) nem vitásan érinti a civiljog teljes spektrumát, új elemekkel frissítve a már kialakult magánjogi intézményrendszert. Jelen írás a termékszavatosság szabályainak elemző bemutatására tesz kísérletet.
A magyar jogi szabályozásban előzmények nélküli jogintézményről van szó, ezért a meghatározó jellemzők bemutatása más, a hibás teljesítéshez kapcsolódó jogintézményekhez történő hasonlítással történik meg. Ennek során a kiindulási alapot a hibás teljesítésből eredő igények „anyajogának” tekinthető kellékszavatosság jelenti, ezen túlmenően a hibás teljesítéssel okozott károk megtérítésére (a továbbiakban: kártérítés), valamint termékfelelősségre vonatkozó szabályok kapnak szerepet.
A termékszavatosságra vonatkozó rendelkezések a Ptk.-nak a kötelmi jogi szabályokat tartalmazó hatodik könyvében, annak XXIV. fejezetében, a hibás teljesítésre vonatkozó rendelkezéseknél szerepelnek a kellékszavatosságra és kártérítésére vonatkozó szabályokkal együtt. A hibás teljesítésből eredő fogyasztói igények körében további igényérvényesítési lehetőséget teremtő termékfelelősségi szabályok ettől eltérően a szerződésen kívül okozott kárért való felelősséggel szabályai között, a LXXII. fejezetben kaptak helyet.