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Changes in temperature and precipitation conditions during the dormant season (November–March) in Hungary over the past two climate cycles (1961–2023)
35-76Views:70The observable signs of climate change manifest themselves in various ways across space and time; examining these phenomena is essential for gaining a deeper understanding of the often extreme events and atmospheric conditions occurring around us – in the Earth’s atmosphere.
The aim of this study is to present the spatial and temporal changes in temperature and precipitation conditions occurring during the dormant season (November–March) by analysing daily temperature and precipitation data from 10 meteorological stations in Hungary using statistical methods. This study covers the past 60+ years (1961–2023), evaluating changes – specifically in the frequency of selected indicators – that occurred between the reference period (1961–1990) and the recent climate cycle (1991–2023).
Based on the results, a significant (p<0.05) decrease in the occurrence of low-temperature days can be observed for the entire dormant period (November–March) – for both minimum and maximum temperature indicators – while there was a significant (p<0.05) increase in the number of days with high – and sometimes extremely high – temperatures. In addition to these findings, there was a noticeable increase in the number of days – characterised by increasingly large temperature fluctuations exceeding the freezing point (Tmin<0 °C and Tmax≥5 °C; Tmin<0 °C and Tmax≥10 °C; Tmin<0 °C and Tmax≥15 °C). These changes are essentially applicable to the entire country, as well as to all 10 meteorological stations examined. Based on the performed analyses, it can be concluded that the excess heat observed during the dormant period is not accompanied by a clear increase in precipitation. When examining precipitation indicators, significantly greater uncertainty and variability were observed both spatially and temporally; thus, a clear, unidirectional trend in precipitation data has not been characteristic of the past 63 years (1961–2023). -
Agrometeorological characteristics of the 2024 maize growing season in Debrecen-Látókép
67-78Views:154The impact of weather on yields is realised in a complex interaction with agrotechnical factors. In this agrometeorological study for the year 2024, the main meteorological factors determining yields were analysed in relation to the agrotechnical elements and phenophases. The research was based on air temperature, soil temperature and precipitation measurements at the Látókép Experimental Station of the University of Debrecen and on sunshine duration data from the HungaroMet Debrecen Airport Station.
It can be concluded that the year 2024 was characterised by a marked duality in terms of maize production. The weather was favourable until June. Water availability was still adequate (partly due to favourable initial water availability in the soils) and temperatures were mostly above the multi-year average, without periods of extreme heat. Overall, this resulted in a well-developed stand with high yield potential. Subsequently, the weather changed fundamentally. Both July and August mean temperatures were close to record highs (24.2 °C). One of the heatwave peaks was in mid-July, coinciding in several places with the most heat stress-sensitive flowering phenophases of maize. The persistent, extremely hot weather in July-August was primarily responsible for the yield depression in the 2024 growing season. The below-average rainfall, combined with a significant soil depression, mainly during the maturing period. The combination of the soil trough, the atmospheric drought and the extremely high air temperatures caused the significant yield losses. -
Investigation of the effect of wool and straw mulch in an open-field tomato experiment
23-33Views:60We investigated the effects of fatty wool and wheat straw mulch on soil moisture, soil temperature values, and berry yield development in an outdoor tomato experiment on clay loam soil using small plot trials. In terms of soil moisture, both mulching treatments and the measurement dates (8 occasions) showed significantly more favorable values compared to the control tomato plants. No significant differences were found among the treatments for soil temperature, only between the measurement dates. The berry yield for both types of natural mulch exceeded the control values (4.04 kg/plant), with statistically significant differences observed between the untreated (control) and mulched (straw and wool) treatments. No significant difference was noted between the straw (7.54 kg/plant) and wool (6.69 kg/plant) mulched treatments. However, in the case of the wool mulch several practical insights have been provided for future applications, inspiring further research work. -
Meteorological conditions of maize growing experiments on the agricultural campus of the University of Debrecen in the growing season 2022
5-19Views:185In 2022, a very severe drought developed in the Debrecen area. The average yield of the maize experiments at the University of Debrecen was lower than ever before. On several plots the crop yielded practically nothing. The evaluation of the meteorological conditions of such an exceptional year is essential to increase knowledge on the drought susceptibility of maize and to clarify the limits of stress tolerance. As far as possible, meteorological data measured at or near the experimental site should be used. In response to this need, we have investigated and presented the meteorological conditions on the agricultural campus, especially for maize. An important factor in the exceptional nature of the 2022 drought was the lack of sufficient precipitation to recharge the deeper layers of the soils during the previous winter. April was still average in terms of rainfall, but thereafter a very significant rainfall deficit developed. In the three summer months, a total of 66 mm of rain fell, 115 mm below average. The lack of water and its adverse effects were exacerbated by the fact that temperatures in the May-August period were significantly higher than normal. In particular, the summer months were much warmer than the long-term average, with positive temperature anomalies of 3.4 °C, 2.4 °C and 2.9 °C respectively. -
Real-time soil ammonia gas monitoring with IoT technology
105-118Views:71Today, environmental monitoring is increasingly important in arable crop production due to the importance of weather, sustainable nutrient and water management. This paper presents a new innovative technology based on wireless data link and transmission and its results for monitoring soil ammonia emissions using Internet of Things (IoT) technology based on the measurement of environmental characteristics could be a practical method in the future. It is a monitoring system for sustainable and environmentally friendly crop production. The sensors used will ensure the monitoring of soil ammonia emissions, a method that provides fast and accurate monitoring. The results show a periodic trend in NH3 fluxes, with higher amounts in the spring (warmer) periods after nitrogen fertilisation. Results of multivariate linear regression analyses indicate that soil moisture, temperature, humidity and air pressure significantly influence NH3 emissions. -
The impact of drought on winter wheat yield under conventional and reduced tillage systems in the Nagykunság region
3-18Views:80In the present study, the effects of reduced and conventional tillage on the grain yield of winter wheat were investigated during the extremely dry 2021/2022 growing season in Karcag, Hungary. The research was conducted within the framework of the local long-term soil tillage experiment, where the reduced tillage plots have been managed since 1997 using non-inversion, loosening-based primary tillage and mulch farming. The soil of the experimental site is a clayey loam textured, deep-saline meadow chernozem. The experiment was carried out in four replications on meso-plots (1890 m²). For the evaluation of the results, key local meteorological data were considered, including precipitation totals, temperature data, and potential evapotranspiration (PET), from which the climatic water balance (CWB) was calculated. Descriptive statistical parameters were determined, and following a (positive) homogeneity test, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed. Based on the results, reduced tillage achieved an experimental average of 4.45 (±0.10) t ha⁻¹, significantly outperforming (p<0.05) the conventional, moldboard ploughing-based tillage yield of 3.62 (±0.29) t ha⁻¹. The processing and evaluation of meteorological data revealed that the 2021/2022 growing season in Karcag was extremely dry for winter wheat production, particularly during the critical spring vegetative and especially the reproductive stages. This drought intensified the differences in soil water management between reduced and ploughing-based conventional tillage systems. Based on these findings, the previously described soil moisture-conserving effect of reduced tillage was confirmed, and it was concluded that significant yield surpluses can be achieved with reduced tillage in winter wheat production during drought years. -
Agrometeorological characteristics of the extreme drought of 2022 in Debrecen-Látókép
5-18Views:177A large part of Hungary, including the Debrecen area, was facing a very severe drought in 2022. Our research examined the weather conditions that led to maize yield losses on a scale not seen in decades.
In the winter before the growing season, deeper soil layers were not able to replenish water, and the spring water availability of maize was particularly low. April was cool with average rainfall. Thereafter, the weather was warm or very warm, sunny and extremely dry practically until the second half of August. Monthly mean temperatures in all three summer months were relatively uniformly 2–3 ºC above the multi-year average, with 44 heat days. In total, only 56 mm of rain fell during the summer, with only two daily rainfall events above 10 mm, which did not contribute significantly to the water supply of the maize due to the very high evaporation capacity of the air. From the beginning of the summer, soil drought severely limited water uptake and transpiration, and maize growth was very poor. The drought (a combination of soil and atmospheric drought), which worsened during the critical phenological phases (flowering and yield formation), left most maize plants infertile.
The exceptional nature of the drought of 2022 is due to the combination of very hot summer weather, with virtually no precipitation during the main periods, and very low initial soil water availability. In our region, we can expect an increase in drought risk as a result of climate change. -
Evaluation of smart parameters of maize (Zea mays L.) hybrids with different genotypes
5-32Views:202In the 2024 growing season, I examined the smart parameters of five different genotypes of maize hybrids within the framework of a long-term field experiment. The research focused on the germination dynamics, dry matter accumulation in relation to the useful heat units, and the analysis of individual NDVI and SPAD values of the plants.
The cooling that occurred during the two weeks following sowing posed challenges for the hybrids, yet the adaptive strategies of the different genotypes were clearly observable. The dynamics of germination and the rate of dry matter accumulation highlighted the diversity among the genotypes, offering significant potential in terms of yield and harvest timing.
The Kabanero hybrid performed exceptionally well, emerging the earliest and reaching the highest final dry matter content. The Synopsis hybrid showed dynamic adaptation: although its initial germination was slower, it later accelerated, resulting in balanced dry matter accumulation. Dueling hybrid exhibited the most equal germination and the highest number of emerged plants, coupled with a continuous increase in dry matter content, leading to stable growth. Indem1012 hybrid was sensitive to the drop in temperature, resulting in delayed germination, yet it still achieved significant dry matter accumulation. Kabaretto hybrid emergence equal and although it maintained a lower dry matter content until physiological maturity, it produced the highest average yield, demonstrating its excellent yield potential.
NDVI analysis revealed that all hybrids reached their highest values during the V12 phenological stage, reflecting healthy plant development. The SPAD value analysis showed similar patterns for the Kabanero, Synopsis, and Dueling hybrids, with peak values measured at the V12, silking, and R4 stages. In the Indem1012 and Kabaretto hybrids, high SPAD values were recorded during the V12 stage, followed by a decrease during silking, and a subsequent increase at the R4 stage, indicating the hybrids' adaptability.
Overall, the diverse performance of the studied maize hybrids provided valuable insights into the relationships between germination dynamics, dry matter accumulation, and physiological development, highlighting the potential inherent in genetic diversity. -
Analysis of dry matter, nitrogen and calcium incorporation dynamics in Honey sweet maize (Zea mays L. convar. saccharata Koern) hybrids
21-35Views:170The cultivation of sweet maize is of great importance in Hungary. Hungary is the largest producer on the European continent and the second largest exporter in the world after the United States. The average annual production of Hungarian sweet maize, which is in demand all over the world, reaches 500,000 tonnes as a result of the properly selected precision cultivation technology. Yields of sweet maize are above average in precision farming, with nearly 70% of the area irrigated.
An important factor in the exceptional nature of the drought of 2022 was the lack of rainfall in the previous winter half-year, which was not sufficient to replenish the deeper layers of the soil. April was still average in terms of rainfall, but thereafter a very significant rainfall deficit developed. A total of 66 mm of rain fell in the three summer months. The water shortage and its adverse effects were exacerbated by significantly higher than normal temperatures between May and August. The water deficit was compensated for during the growing season by precision drip irrigation, with 344 mm of water being applied. In particular, the summer months were much warmer than the long-term average, with positive temperature differences of 3.4 °C, 2.4 °C and 2.9 °C respectively. The best indicator of sweet maize yields is dry matter incorporation dynamics.
Based on the results measured during the phenophase, it was found that the growing season can be divided into three dominant intervals. The Honey maize hybrid produced 18% dry matter in the first stage, from emergence to the juvenile stage, and an additional 4% from the juvenile stage to silking. The intensive stage of dry matter incorporation lasted from silking to the R3 phenophase (harvest), with a total of 72%. Continuous knowledge of the grain moisture content of sweet maize is an important indicator for operational efficiency. Our research showed that, at the R3 phenophase, the moisture contents of plant parts were closely correlated, with the grain moisture content being the highest. Our research results demonstrated that dry matter gain from silking to the R3 (harvest) phase is very intensive, with a total heat requirement of 840 HU for the examined hybrid. -
Effect of the year on yield, grain moisture, and quality parameters of maize (Zea mays L.) (2020–2023)
51-68Views:195Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most important arable crops in Hungary, whose yield stability and quality have increasingly depended on annual and climatic conditions in recent years. The period between 2020 and 2023 clearly illustrates that variability in temperature and precipitation patterns fundamentally determines yield performance, grain moisture content, and quality parameters. While in 2020 balanced heat and water availability ensured high yields, favorable starch content, and an extended ripening period, in 2022 the extreme drought and record-high temperatures resulted in a drastic yield reduction, low grain moisture, and moderate starch content.
During critical phenological phases – particularly flowering and grain filling – heat stress and water shortage greatly influenced pollination success, dry matter accumulation, and thus overall crop quality. In unfavorable years, an increase in protein and oil content at the expense of starch was often observed, indicating an inverse relationship between quantitative and qualitative parameters. Although lower grain moisture at harvest can offer technological advantages, rapid water loss may lead to structural damage and an increased risk of mycotoxin contamination.
The results of the examined period highlight that extreme weather factors caused by climate change—heatwaves, drought periods, and precipitation deficits—not only limit yield potential but also alter quality traits. Therefore, in the future, adapting to year-to-year variations will play a key role: the use of stress-tolerant hybrids, optimization of sowing dates, adoption of water-conserving tillage practices, and targeted irrigation strategies can collectively enhance the stability of maize production under changing agroclimatic conditions. -
Agro-meteorological characteristics of the 2023 growing season in long-term maize experiments at Debrecen-Látókép
29-39Views:151The agrometeorological characteristics of the 2023 maize growing year were analysed and evaluated primarily on the basis of meteorological measurements at Debrecen-Látókép. Our results are also valid for the wider Debrecen area, since – at least this year – the water supply of the crop was not mainly dependent on local rainfall.
Following the exceptional drought of 2022, the very significant precipitation in the period September-January was sufficient to saturate the soils to field water capacity. Most of February and March 2023 were dry, allowing soil preparation, but the weather only became favourable for sowing in the second half of April, following a cool, wet period. Temperatures and sunshine conditions in May, which were in line with the long-term average, provided favourable conditions for the early vegetative development of maize, and there was no water deficit despite less rainfall than usual. In June, the weather continued to be moderate and warm, with above average rainfall, which is considered ideal for the second half of the vegetative development phase. July was warmer and drier than average, but without extremes such as in the summers of 2021 or 2022, and the slightly cool and moderately wet weather of the first decade of August had a positive effect on yield development. The warmest period of the summer, after the sensitive phenophase of maize, only resulted in a spectacular acceleration of ripening in mid-August. Record warm, dry weather in September favoured grain water release and harvesting.
The initial water supply was adequate for field water capacity, the moderately warm growing season, balanced temperatures and around average precipitation in the Debrecen area provided overall favourable agro-meteorological conditions for maize. -
Evaluation of the yield components, NDVI values, and water release dynamics of maize hybrids (Zea mays L.)
77-96Views:64Adapting to climate change is crucial in maize production. Changes in climatic factors are particularly noticeable in Hungary, which is why special attention must be paid to nutrient and water supply when growing maize hybrids.
In our analysis of agrotechnical studies for the year 2025, we focused primarily on the weather characteristics and meteorological conditions during the growing season and their effects, as well as soil and air temperature as the main factors determining crop yield.
We conducted our measurements and observations at the University of Debrecen’s Látókép Experimental Station. Here, we performed important analyses by comparing precise measurement data collected over several years. This time, the subjects of our study were maize hybrids H320 and H420. Based on the results of our long-term experiments, we can conclude that both maize hybrids possess good phenotypic traits, have a stable structure, and exhibit good root and stem characteristics. H320 produced a yield of 15.99 t/ha with relatively rapid water loss dynamics; its grain moisture content at harvest was 16.9%. The H420 corn hybrid achieved a higher yield of 18.12 t/ha with water loss dynamics that can be described as moderate. Grain moisture content at harvest was 17.67%.
Monitoring the plant’s nitrogen supply provides important information. One of the most commonly used methods is the NDVI index. We consistently measured higher NDVI values for the H420 hybrid.
Grain drying proceeded at a moderate rate following physiological maturity; the harvest date was slightly later than in previous years, but weather conditions did not hinder harvesting operations.
For the H320 hybrid, 140 days and 1,399 HU were required from emergence to physiological maturity, while for the H420 hybrid, 145 days and 1,446 HU were required from emergence to physiological maturity. -
Agrometeorological characteristics of the 2025 maize growing season in the Debrecen region
45-55Views:158In Hungary, soil drought, atmospheric drought, and extremely high temperatures often interact in complex ways to cause significant maize yield losses, so the issue of drought was also the focus of the agrometeorological study for 2025. As in previous years, the main meteorological factors determining crop yield were analysed and the weather in the Debrecen region was evaluated in relation to the individual phenological phases.
At the beginning of the growing season, the upper soil layers were saturated with water, but slightly less water than usual reached the deeper layers. April, which is favorable for maize (sowing and germination period), was followed by a particularly cool May, significantly slowing down plant development. Due to the very dry, very hot June, signs of water stress were already visible to the naked eye in the second half of the month (plant height, leaf condition), as a result of increasing soil drought and regular atmospheric drought during the daytime. July proved to be favorable with rainy and moderately warm weather, which was the main reason why the average maize yield was above average. In line with previous research results, this year's harvest proves that the seemingly extremely unfavorable weather in June does not in itself prevent above-average yields. -
Analysis of the effect of agrotechnical parameters and crop year on maize (Zea mays L.) yield using polyfactorial yield trial data
77-100Views:159Field crop production is of paramount importance, the fundamental basis of food production and the source of our livelihood. Maize is one of the world's most important crops, essential for both food and energy security. The research was carried out in Hungary, at the University of Debrecen's Látókép Experimental Site, on calcareous chernozem soil in a complex tillage experiment, set up in 1989 by Prof. Dr. János Nagy. The analysis of the examined years (2015–2023) was carried out in a similar way as in the research of Gombos and Nagy (2019, 2022, 2023, 2024), i.e. we examined the deviation of the total precipitation and mean annual temperature of the given year from the 30-year (1981–2010) site average. RStudio and repeated measures model and LSD post hoc test are used to analyse the maize yield data.
Of the nine years studied, 2015 was the year with the third lowest significant maize yield (7.94 t/ha). The subsequent year 2016 yielded the second highest significant maize yield of the studied period (11.39 t/ha), The 2017 yield (8.64 t/ha) was significantly lower than the preceding year, while 2018 was more favourable for maize (9.18 t/ha). The 2019 harvest produced the statistically third highest maize yield (9.42 t/ha) in the studied period. The yield of 2020 (9.24 t/ha) was not significantly different from that of 2018, but was statistically different from all other years. The yield of maize in the unfavourable year 2021 (7.05 t/ha) was statistically the second lowest in the studied period. Of the nine studied years, the most unfavourable year for maize was the record drought year of 2022, when a yield of 2.52 t/ha was observed. The following year, 2023, recorded the highest maize yield of the studied period, 11.97 t/ha. The greatest impact on maize yield was exerted by the crop year with 73.5%, followed by fertilisation with 24.7%. The effect of tillage was 1%, because the different base crops performed differently depending on the crop year, thus neutralising the effect.
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